From discrimination to equality: a comparative analysis between Belgium and Sweden of the (under)-representation of women in top leadership positions

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction:

Historically, though men have largely dominated European society in terms of power, trade and work, women have always actively in various collaborations work necessary to life and that of his entourage. But, before, these works were confined to household work as well as the child rearing. The man was seen both by religion and by custom, as being the only one able to pursue a professional life and the only source of household income. For years, women were not regarded as equal to men. But gradually, during the twentieth century, they are empowered and have obtained their various individual rights that were previously denied. Gradually, they gained their independence and equality of chance against the men in many areas. However, this equality is only a facade, as in society, women are still under the domination of men. Women are still discriminated against in various areas especially in the field of work. Although they represent half the population, their presence is less felt in upper management positions, they are still less in instances of corporate decisions and public life than men. There is already in the nineteenth century a compartmentalization of tasks, with the idea that businesses would be more feminine. In 1896, 90% of women work in agriculture, trade, in the work of fabrics and garments in the textile industry and domestic service. And until the First World War, they will be trapped in those occupations. However, within the textile industry, there are large differences between the jobs of men and women. « The use of female labor in industry was seen as the reason for the devaluation of formerly male occupations, due to the simplification of tasks related to the introduction of machinery and low female wages. », said Battagliola. Indeed, while young men can become technicians or foremen, women are, themselves, confined to jobs without giving any career prospects. The skill required to work for women is not recognized as a qualification, but as related to feminine qualities. Therefore, they would have no merit. But, this lack of recognition of the women’s qualifications meets little opposition in the labor movement because it is dominated by men. The syndicalism organizations have played an important role in maintaining the division of labor by sex.

These findings have always up till now been a debate in the world. But, what are then doing of the member countries of the European Union such as Sweden and Belgium? Across Europe, the role of women in the professional world reveals inequality compared to men, and many direct and indirect discrimination, despite their involvement in the labor market. However, progress in equality between men and women in the labor market are reflected in the share of women in professional jobs (requiring a graduate degree). Women work in a range of services « intellectuals » all over the world. They are found predominantly in traditionally female occupations such as nursing, teaching and administration, although they have also infiltrated many areas dominated by men, particularly in the area of information technology and communications and judicial systems around the world. The Statistics show that there is little change in their share over the last three to five years, as women continue to occupy about half or more of professional jobs in many countries. However, there continues to be considerable variation in the proportion of women according to different occupations. A detailed study of the situation of women between the Scandinavian countries like Sweden and Eastern Europe such as Belgium will help us better understand this situation of imperfect existing equality between man and woman.

Now holding, the world record with the participation of 43% of women in parliament and 27% in management positions in large companies, to study the evolution of women’s work in Sweden will be important before we discuss several positions of high responsibilities held by women in Belgium and Sweden. Then, we will see that some barriers still facing upward mobility of women in senior professional. After that, we see that the development of feminine values in the world of business is necessary both in economic and social life of a country. Finally, we develop the opportunities offered by the existence of women in upper management.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 1: Women’s work History in Sweden

For many years, Sweden has been recognized for its policy of equality between the sexes and its strong representation of women both in politics and the labor market. Indeed, Sweden is one of the first countries throughout Europe, to boast of being one of the first countries in the world to permit equal citizens. It has given priority in the 70s, to give equal opportunities to women. Today it is among the countries of the world that has the most working women (75% of 20-65years, especially in the tertiary sector and civil service), and more women elected to parliament (43.6%) and in the councils and municipalities. Over the years, despite crises, successive governments have reaffirmed the approach known as the ‘mainstreaming, of including the size of opportunity for women in all political and administrative action is a welfare state model based on a strong public service, and a high level of social benefits and public services to the population. This system, designed and developed largely in the first half of the twentieth century has left its mark in employment patterns, family and society. In particular, the changes in relation to the role of women give an overview of the evolution of Swedish society in recent decades. Yet, whatever the period of history, women have always had a job, whether at home or outside the family. Every age, every social context, women have had a different place and, consequently, their activities have evolved. Here we will highlight a chronological structure of women’s work in Sweden to highlight the advances and setbacks based on the historical context.

A-   The First World War

Until 1914, labor activists were hostile to working women in the industry. They wanted, taking women away from men’s jobs, maintain their patriarchal domination. But, people expressed serious concerns when the introduction of machines has replaced men with women and lower wages. Some of the arguments against women’s work were: the natural weakness of women compared to men, its role in the perpetuation and preservation of the race and the importance of family to the worker therefore involved the woman’s place was at home, and not at the factory. The challenge was both economically because the wages of men should be sufficient to support his family, and fear that women and machines replace men, but also through the symbolic control and male domination. However, during this war, women accounted for 36% of the workforce, sometimes despite it. Women are encouraged by all spheres of power. Their intervention in all sectors was needed because even if the Swedes are not parties to the front, the war has had an impact on the economy; trade with other European countries was virtually non-existent the misery began to be felt. By necessity, the women join the factories, leaving aside the vilification they were subject before, and began to work; those who remained were already working there. They began to occupy positions in the so-called male occupations and are more numerous in the tertiary sector. But only the young women, unmarried and widows were at that time, integrate the world of work, especially for tertiary activities. Nevertheless, this situation has caused a true emancipation of woman in social life and family needs, like at work, contribute to the survival of his family to that man alone could not meet the household needs. Recognizing their importance, they trigger strikes, although the majority are reluctant to use this means of pressure weakens further. These social movements lead to a higher unionization but it does not reach significant levels.

          B-    The Interwar years

The 1920s were characterized by the transition from a state of war to the normalization of economic production and social relations. This end of the War is also marked by the exacerbation of social tensions and lead to a radicalization of the capital-labor ratios. Various restrictions are involved in all of Europe to relieve the labor market. But in Sweden, the feminist movement is growing by demanding improved working conditions, creation of social employment, equal access to work while questioning the economic and political system in place. To safeguard public order and prevent unrest, the state meets some of their claims in their granting of civil rights in 1918 Swedish women and the right to be elected in 1921. Thus, there has been equal access to work, especially in the tertiary sector, in the Swedish legislation. Also, a law occurred in 1920 removed the dismissal of women employees in case of marriage and that of 1923 gives them access to higher positions of public service.

But with the emergence of mass unemployment after the crisis of 1929, employment of women is again given violently in question. Against the backdrop of economic crisis and unemployment, voices are heard in all industrialized countries to regulate the employment of women and limiting it to reduce unemployment and improve the budget balance. A fierce controversy occurs and leads to a precarious female employment and a deterioration of working conditions of women. In Sweden, unlike France and Belgium, women are likely to incorporated associations or self-mixed. After suffering as in many European countries an offensive against the labor law, a response is built up by the union of several women’s associations with the benevolence of the Social Democratic government since 1931. Yet by the mid-30s, several factors call into question the barriers to employment for women: the economic crisis is receding, the social reforms are developing the service sector, and the country’s declining birth rate is about political concern. Feminists from different groups feel that to save the Swedish population from extinction, it is necessary to develop policies to improve social conditions of family life. Five years of struggle later, in 1939, an Act prohibiting the dismissal of women in the public sector because of marriage, pregnancy or birth was enacted. But this 1939 Act does not question the sexual division of labor between sectors, which favors even indirect discrimination because women for equal work, they are paid less than men.

 

         C- The Second World War

Sweden held away from the First World War continued his reform politics during the 40s and could well accelerate its industrialization led by the Social Democratic Party, and who remained the majority party for more than a century. The country still manages to maintain its neutrality during the Second World War but at the cost of concessions made under the threat of Nazi Germany (delivery of iron ore, access to its territory for transit of German troops). Sweden was unable either militarily or economically to compete against Germany, she was providing food and war materials. Thus the works of men’s hands were most needed in mining and defense industries which facilitated the integration of women in the service sector but also primary. The entry of women in the tertiary does not cause, or little, contrary to the industry, competition between men and women for the same jobs. Firstly, women are not considered when they include the administration, used as genuine, but as helpers. In the rare cases where women reach senior positions, some even say infiltration of women in men’s careers. The fear of competition always exists. In the tertiary sector, the secretariat is considered an exclusively female occupation. Indeed, this type of job would suit them better because it’s a career of collaboration. Far from competing with men, women support them. The other typically female professions that thrive and prosper in this war are those that are intimately related to the role of mother. Careers in teaching, nursing and social worker are therefore based on the qualities attributed to women. In addition, girls are more likely to pursue graduate studies and earned their diplomas. The feminist movement intensified and had a great influence within the SPD, several laws were enacted to safeguard the interests of women in the labor market.

           D-   The aftermath of 1968

In Europe, urbanization has significantly altered the role of women in the domestic economy. In those days, girls are more likely to pursue and discover the injustices afflicting them. At a time when one hears the right of peoples to self-determination, the movement of black people and that of the colonized have undertaken major struggles for recognition of their dignity, women are young and educated aware of their condition, and through associations, will try, too, to win their freedom. This is to no longer be regarded as sex objects in everyday life. Several feminist movements around the world are the cause. The followers of the movement « Second Century » for example, defending an argument which the majority of women have always been kept out of the way the world works, this because the men who alighted from the outset as the sole cause refused them the possession of an autonomous existence. As for Marxist thought offers a legitimate place in the struggle of women in the family and the man holds up the middle class, while the woman is the proletariat. Marxist thought focuses on the exploitation of women in domestic work, which would be the condition common to all women, as a result, a wide representation of the family groups and social classes. But the operation does not summarize the field of economics.

 

Women’s struggle is an anti-communist because the woman was identified with the idea of ownership.

The Feminist Movement has emerged at the conjunction of two historical facts: the protest movements of 1968, starting in France and won shortly after the whole of Europe, which is its immediate sociopolitical context and the slow evolution over the century, the role of women in social and cultural life. Thanks to this movement, women are struggling just like the beginning of the century, to enter the trades, parties, unions or professional associations, and now the challenge is to get the power to say, represent, propose to decide. But also, the power to innovate, but it is based on freedom. The feminist movement enjoyed, therefore, a new boom. Before 1968 and the crisis of bourgeois values which gave birth to radical feminism, many feminist organizations had already raised the problem of alienation of women in society. Groups were created, existing ones have regained interest. All these associations tended to be apolitical want a better integration of women in this society and defending the modern versions of the housewife. They aim at specific improvements for the fate of women. The accommodation they offer very uncertain between work and home life seems very precarious.

In the 70s, when the first debates on gender equality, feminists Swedish propose the question to think in terms of rights and duties of men and women, human beings, parents and workers: employment is a right for all children and a common responsibility. Concrete actions are emerging rapidly, wage scales removed, separate tax system, establishment of parental leave available to the father or the mother, a vast repository of public service, equal opportunity laws strict for businesses, etc … Sweden has revised its institutions and its policies to adapt to the new design of roles and never came over even in times of crisis. But the process of equality within the domestic sphere is not completed and conditions of employment are not the same, The Swedish example is reinforced by the example Danish, Norwegian or Finnish. Remember that these countries are included in the list of countries where the unemployment rate is very low, the high growth rate and the extremely high rate of unionization

E-   End of the XX^th century

At the end of the XXth century, the behavior of men and women in work were significantly closer. The intermittent job, which was a specifically feminine, becoming increasingly rare. While, graduation is the key that allowed to getting employment and career, there is the extension of education for young people, especially girls. While they have surpassed boys in the baccalaureate, you find they are moving (or are oriented) in traditionally feminine (literary or tertiary sectors). The mix of businesses is not reached, despite the increasing number of girls. Regarding the number of women in the higher professions, it increases with the increase in enrollment of girls. Recruitment methods schools play an important role in increasing the role of women in higher occupations: recruitment based on academic performance favors girls. The orientation of girls follows a logic that specialty level logic: they do not try to enter the school’s most quoted, but rather in a school which offers a specialty, an education which they like. In addition, women in higher professions have faced many problems: it has been difficult to gain acceptance in environments where prestige was synonymous with male. To be accepted, they must have a social origin and a number of graduate degrees to men. But in general, with the professionalization of women, the differences between trades men and women decrease, even though women rarely attain positions of leadership. Today, inequalities affect less the differences between female jobs and male jobs, but there is a widening gap between women themselves. The inequality can not be measured simply in terms of qualification and salary, but also in terms of access to the labor market and job type. The full-time, permanent contract, offering great stability, is increasingly replaced by other types of jobs, more precarious. These are women, and among them the less educated, who are most affected by underemployment and / or precarious jobs. Jobs partial rhyming with partial pay, new forms of work create the appearance of working poor.

In the 1990, Sweden made adaptation of its economic policy to the liberal doctrine in effect, subordinating the goal of full employment than price stability. The economic crisis of the beginning of the decade, especially visible through the dramatic rise in unemployment, imposed several painful reforms: significant cuts in public services, lower rates of compensation for social protection systems, opening of public service actors private (e.g. in the field of education) will drastically change a model so far relied almost exclusively on the public provision of such services. However, the basic structure of the welfare system has been maintained, the tax rate remains comparatively high, and rates of compensation for social insurance have also been revised upwards. Employment rates for men and women are high, but they hide disparities in terms of hours worked. Not only the Swedish work a little less than the U.S. but there is a significant gap in terms of market participation and employment among the Swedish and the Swedes. In addition, women tend to have jobs in the confining traditional roles: education, health or assistance to seniors. Specifically, as they work less, their salaries and career prospects are lower, and ultimately, their pensions are also lower.

 

 

Graphic 1:

Evolution of the level activity women in USA, French and Swede enter 1956 and 2004

Chapter 2: The Senior-Executive Woman in Belgium

See women managers were still a utopia thirty years ago. Yet today it is a marginal reality as each year their numbers are growing more and more despite brakes erected against them. Yet to deny women in the executive committee now seems a real mistake. But before tackling the situation of women managers in Belgium we should first know the meaning of the word « framework ».

A-     Definitions:

The definition given to senior executives varies by country but also for different views.

                    1- From a legal perspective or point of view

The job classification is a method of assigning a place, an order determined at various functions. Wage policy conducted in a business must be based on this hierarchy. In Belgium, this job classification is established for each company according to collective agreements between employers and employees through trade unions. In fact, the implementation of these contracts was imposed by the Act of 1986. In the Joint Committee 218 (CP 218) prepared by the national central employees Belgians functions are divided into four categories, each one comprising all possible functions. The employee’s highest level is in category 4. But no ranking function has been established for executives. They are the leaders and their direction of employees who must report their progress in return managers are autonomous and able to take decisions on their own initiative.

2 – From the sociological point of view

Party of the bourgeoisie, they participate in a recognized superiority, economic power. However, this superiority is personal, it can be transmitted to his heirs. This is not a living classroom of entitlement, but just the elite functions

3 – From a psychological point of view

            These are workers who hold positions of high class and are the highest paid in society. But they are faced with constraints both moral and physical. Having enough time jobs they were responsible at the same time a lot of responsibility than other employees of other companies.

B-    Current state of senior positions female executives in Belgium

Despite the progress made in Belgium, the proportion of women in decision-making circles is too low, women are excluded from positions of responsibility both in politics and business. Within the European Union, for example, 24% of parliamentarians are women, a similar proportion holding ministerial office. Ten years ago, this proportion was although only 16%. Progress towards an increased representation of women in leadership positions are too slow, the European Commissioner stressed moreover that « equality of opportunity is also good for business. Economies must fully exploit the potential of all the talents if we want to face global competition. For, in the private sector, it is clear that the scope for growth remains the least important. In Europe, women represent slightly over 44% of workers but only 32% of those who are considered leaders, and the underrepresentation of women in top positions are even more pronounced in large firms.

In this respect, Belgium is highlighted, but only in the public sphere. The country has indeed registered the greatest improvement of gender equality in parliament over the past ten years (from 12% to 35% of women), a direct result of positive government intervention through legislation implementing parity among candidates and equal prominence on the ballot.

Work of equal value for equal pay for women and men: the principle is embedded in the longstanding both European and Belgian law and is an essential element for equal treatment between men and women. In practice, there is often still a gap between the wages of male and female. On the Belgian labor market, women earn on average less than a man.

The existence of this wage gap is explained traditionally by a number of factors, including differences in training and seniority, the differences in career development, a gender-segregated labor market and undervaluation of the functions and characteristics of typical female function. At first glance, the evaluation of functions seems an activity objective and scientific. But in practice, all sorts of hidden mechanisms, prejudices and stereotypes distort the assessment to the detriment of women. A significant part of the wage gap can be attributed to the underlying mechanisms of gender discrimination in job evaluation systems. The Belgian government has also made efforts to reduce wage differentials between men and women, and has taken measures necessary to enforce the principle of equal pay for equal work of equal value by strengthening legislation, including in the ‘harmonizing with international codes and standards work. Indeed, the pay gap between men and women is still a reality and the Belgian Presidency decided in 2001 to address a fundamental issue in terms of economic equality between men and women: the wage gap by trying to better understand the structural characteristics and evolution of it and trying to better estimate the potential and actual effects of some significant policies of the labor market. Today only professional experience, real or treated, is now taken into account in determining compensation, rather than the age of the employee. These include periods of work actually performed, the period of suspension of employment contract or a possible period of full unemployment compensation.

Not many women have occupied the highest office in the Belgian political world: 17 ministers and state secretaries, three provincial governors and five presidents of the party. Women politicians were unanimous in the debate: « Currently, women are well represented at the highest level of politics, but it is possible to do better. The goal remains the balance between men and women. « The corporate world has also begun a movement to catch up. Women these policies call for a greater representation of women in boards of public and private companies. Businesses and governments must take initiatives to enable more women to serve on governing bodies. According to participants, participate in networks is crucial in this regard. Women have every incentive to get involved actively, to exercise their function but also to ensure a successful career. To exchange experiences, expertise and knowledge informally with others in their company or outside, makes it possible to have another look at things, stimulates innovation and ensures greater efficiency in everyday life.

 

 

Chapter 3: The Senior-Executive Woman in Sweden

          A-   Definitions:

       1 – From a legal perspective or point view

This classification is based on criteria such as level of distinction of the complexity of the function, problem solving, the impact of errors, contribution, autonomy, division of labor, knowledge, training, transmission of information, contacts and knowledge of foreign languages. As a member of the International Labor Organization, Sweden takes over the terms proposed by the International Labor Office (ILO) to define the frames. The « code of principles and best practices concerning conditions of employment and labor workers » adopted in 1978 by the Board led to the ILO definition of knowledge worker (or frame): « any person.
a) who has completed an education and higher vocational training or has equivalent experience in a recognized scientific, technical or administrative.
b) practices, as an employee, functions predominantly intellectual character involving the exercise of a high degree of Faculties of Judgment and initiative involving a relatively high level of responsibility.

This concept also includes any person with the characteristics a) and b) above who has, under powers delegated by the employer and under his authority, responsibility to provide, manage, supervise and coordinate the activities of some of the company or organization, with the corresponding authority over, excluding executives with a broad delegation of the employer.  »

2 –   From a sociological point of view

As in Belgium, executives are the cog in the Swedish economy. In fact these people are also parts of the middle class to afford to fund studies to enable them to access qualifications enabling them to integrate a working world where the intellectual capacity will be paid Truth. They may also be part of the elite companies that can integrate with their diplomas.

         3 –   From a psychological point of view

These are workers who hold positions of high class and are the highest paid in society. But they are faced with constraints both moral and physical. Having enough time jobs they were responsible at the same time a lot of responsibility than other employees of other companies

   B- Current state of senior women executives positions in Sweden

For the highest ranks of national and international decision-making structures, women’s representation has not been any major developments since the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995. The Program of Action adopted in Beijing sets should be taken into account when examining the lives of women, the social, economic and political and put it back. The Beijing Conference reaffirmed that « equal participation in decision-making was not a simple matter of justice and democracy and could also be seen as a necessary condition for women’s interests are taken into consideration. Without the active participation of women and taking into account their views at all levels of decision-making, the goals of equality, development and peace are impossible. « .

The Beijing Platform for Action affirms that women have the same right as men to participate in the management of public affairs and can contribute to redefining political priorities, to include the political agenda of new issues and inform of new light on the general political questions. The program has defined two strategic objectives in this critical area of ensuring women’s equal access and full participation in power structures and decision-making and strengthens the capacity of women to enable them to participate in decisions and acting responsibly.

At its forty-first session in 1997, the Commission on the Status of Women United Nations reaffirmed the need to identify and implement measures to address under-representation of women in decision, but felt that the removal of discriminatory practices and the introduction of preferential measures were effective ways to achieve it. Although the fundamental right of women and men to participate in politics is long recognized internationally and nationally, in practice there is always a gap between
de jure and de facto in the exercise of power and decision-making. The interests and concerns of women are, therefore, not taken into account when making decisions, and they can not influence the key decisions are taken in the social, economic and political affect society. Efforts to enhance women’s participation in decision-making structures have been delayed by many factors including lack of human and financial resources for training in political careers and the awareness and lack of commitment to ethics policies for the promotion of gender equality and women’s participation in political life. The available data do not reflect on the whole, that more symbolic and shows that the overall goal of gender balance is far from being realized.

Since the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) United Nations has criticized Sweden in 2001 for the few women in executive positions decisive and large companies, is intense debate about this. The country currently has 27% of women on boards of directors of large companies, he is second in all of Europe. In the eyes of the Swedish feminist rather, it is far too little. In 2006-2008 there were two women against 298 men, presidents of the board of directors of a listed company, and 5 women against 286 men, executive directors of these companies. The companies owned in full or in part by the state against more than women in these positions.
In management, women have different tasks than men. They tend to have specialized positions, such as human resources manager, while men are more related positions assigned to the results of the company as Executive Director. This situation is explained by the co-optation and college elections. At the executive level of large companies, recruitment is a very traditional manner in a very homogeneous group. Women who have the power at the head of the corporate exercise usually tan a member of the Board and not as chairman of the Board or as executive director. In Sweden, women entrepreneurs are more likely to be leaders and owners of small businesses as executive directors of large companies. They represent 21% of the first category, knowing that small businesses dominate the private sector. Women’s businesses are in a great majority of all small businesses where the occupation is that of their founder. Successive Swedish governments have always aimed to stimulate the entrepreneurial spirit of women in the name of gender equality and on behalf of an ideology focusing on my business creation to support economic growth. However, the participation rate of women in working life is 78% in Sweden, while the average for other Member States of the European Union is 57.3%. Women comprise nearly half of the Swedish labor force. Unlike most European countries, Sweden has an unemployment rate lower for women than for men: 10% against 11.4% in April 1997. On that date, the average unemployment rate in Europe of Fifteen was 12.5% for women and 9.5% for men. The part-time work is common among Swedish women: 43% had opted for this formula in 1995, against an average of 31.3% in the Fifteen.

In Nordic countries like Sweden, the participation rate and employment are high, sectoral or occupational segregation is strong. The use of part-time and wage gaps are in the European average. Thus, in each council, the women give their opinion on construction projects and planning. The Scandinavian countries hold the record for average fertility rate in Europe, 1.9, which does not prevent them from having the highest rate in Europe, 80%. In these countries positions of great responsibility are held by women, so the director of communications giant Nokia for example is a Swede, as the CEO of Nokia Cellular System.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure : proportion des cadres féminins par pays dans l’ UE 27

 

 

Figure: Proportion de cadres masculins et de cadres féminins en fonction du niveau d’éducation (%) dans l’UE 27

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 4: Barriers to the upward professional mobility of women senior managers

A-    Gender stereotypes and discrimination

            Gender stereotypes are generalizations about the basic features, differences and traditional roles of individuals or groups. Gender stereotypes have changed significantly between the twentieth century and today. In history, in fact, the travails of women had different expectations of different society and a different role in society. Until the next century, the role of women was normal to work from home. They thought women less intelligent, less strong than men. Women were expected to be lower, quiet and subversive. On the role of men themselves were different. They are supposed to be strong, charming and sports. The man was supposed to work and be responsible for the money. They are, in fact, such stereotyping is at the root of discrimination, and sexual division of labor because of their gender is defined by such stereotypes.
The concept of discrimination can affect significantly the labor markets. Discrimination exists when two agents are identical in terms of objective economic variables (talent, education and productivity) are paid differently based on non-economic characteristics such as skin color, gender or even sexual preference.
Hundreds of millions of people are victims of discrimination in the workplace. Not only is this discrimination is a violation of one of the main human rights but also economic and social consequences. Discrimination hinders development because it wastes human talent necessary for economic progress and further underscores the tensions and social inequalities. Overcoming discrimination is essential to achieving decent work and achievements in this area far beyond the world of work. There are two types of discrimination whose motivations are very different: pure discrimination and statistical discrimination. In the case of discrimination, an employer prefers a group of employees, say the male group, those of another, the female group. While these workers are perfectly substitutable and have the same productivity, however, they differ in their membership in one or other of the two sexes.
One consequence of the existence of discrimination in the labor market is the existence of wage differentials between individuals with the same productivity. Another consequence is the presence of high levels of segregation of occupations, some jobs are more likely reserved for individuals within a group. A third is the existence of underemployment: when wages are too low, members of the discriminated group may be discouraged from seeking employment. Employers can also refuse to hire individuals of a certain group. This discrimination results in a minority of women in decision-making bodies of large companies (see Figure 1 above – below).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   B-   Education and labor market segregations

The distribution of men and women in different occupations is an extension of school guidance sexually cleaved. The educational segregation is converted into occupational segregation at the time of entry into the workforce. The social issue of equality between men and women has grown in recent years. Among the many sources of inequality existing studies point, repeatedly, the handicap is the concentration of female employment in a limited number of occupations and the difficulty for women to access positions of the highest employment prestigious. In fact, the positioning of young men and young women in different occupational segments, their arrival on the labor market, has already drawn in part upstream on at school, they and those then did not accede to the same places of education. So it is time that worked out differences in male and female pathways. It indeed starts in early childhood, rooted on the benches of the school, college and university to crystallize upon arrival on the labor market, when individuals choose and are chosen by employers. Occupational segregation is the result, thought out, a social construct that includes but goes beyond it, the more punctual, discrimination in the labor market in the sense understood by lawyers and economists. Without denying the existence of discriminatory practices on the demand side of labor, that is to say, employers, occupational segregation is developed more deeply and insidiously and initially on the side of labor supply, that is to say young. Then, building on the educational segregation, occupational segregation is built downstream on the labor market. In addition, the dramatic increase of women’s schooling has not shaken the laws of social reproduction, since females continue to move towards the same channels as previous generations. Whatever the weight of each grant and other social determinants and how they explain behavior and sexually differentiated educational choices, all agree on the fact that the explosive growth of girls in the school at Over the last century has not resulted in a generalization of mixed networks, this situation does not facilitating women’s access to the same areas as professional men.

In the field of youth employability, retention of girls in particular segments of the school system will appear as a central factor, explaining a part of the differences observed in the labor market between young men and young women. The traditional explanations advanced to interpret the differences of professional young men and women then rest mainly on an implicit assumption of reproduction in the productive system of segregation made upstream in the school system. Do not follow the same training, the young women occupy logically different professions. The mechanisms for allocating individuals in different occupational groups prolong therefore, mechanically, the educational segregation induced by school guidance sexually cleaved.

Thus, despite the rapid increase in the world of education of women and their participation rate in the labor market, most of them continue to suffer from occupational segregation in the workplace and fail rarely break a glass ceiling artificial, created by attitudinal and organizational prejudices, which denies them access to positions of directors and senior specialists or access to the highest responsibilities.

C-    Unequal distribution of domestic and family chores

The division of domestic and family responsibilities between spouses can be analyzed in terms of specialization, economic power, or social norms. Massive participation of women now in the labor market should go hand in hand with less specialization of spouses. Even in couples where both spouses work full time, allocation of tasks is far from egalitarian (see Figure 2). In couples of employees, the share of housework performed by men, however, is sensitive to the gap between their salary and that of their spouse. When the woman earns more, the spouse does a bit more. That is not enough to bridge the gap of time spent by spouses in domestic tasks. This results in the woman, who in addition to his domestic work ahead of them, they look for work where there is not much liability and therefore no progress, or promotion. Indeed, the stereotypes persist and the division of housework is still always unfair. The woman, like it or not, are more involved than her husband in the household work and child rearing. This can complicate the cumulative career family that the woman is bound to make a choice. Thus it sometimes abandons his career to settle for a job with little future or a part-time work to the detriment of his pension. If the work of women is sometimes unrewarding it remains in many cases an economic necessity that helps meet all the needs of the family.

 

 

D-       Corporate culture

Corporate culture can be defined as all the special features that explain the basics of how a specific entity. It is, in a sense, a by-product of national culture and therefore a set of values, myths, rituals, taboos and symbols shared by the majority of employees. The corporate culture is a key variable to explain the everyday experience and strategic choices made by a social group. But for these alliances and mergers are achieving the desired objectives, they must register in order to ensure sustainability of meeting the conditions of stability which necessarily involves the support of the staff. Despite the importance of this human factor, very often the work undertaken during preparation or during the preparation of these strategies will focus initially only economic arguments and completely abandoning the human aspect of the alliance with its main component which is essentially cultural. More and more areas of management use the concept of culture. However, companies are not interested in the culture itself but work on the crop to solve practical problems: problems of strategy, mergers, staff mobilization, restructure, or communication. Culture is a means to better address these problems.
In the period of globalization characterized by competition becoming more fierce, companies around the world, seeking to protect themselves against the principal risk, that they disappeared. To do this, they rely more and more strategic alliances to achieve economic goals such as acquisition of new markets, improving their profit margins or intangible goals such as improving their technological knowledge or organizational. They may also resort to mergers to achieve the size that allows them to compete. Generally, the merger of two or more companies always causes a massive layoff of employees of one of these companies

E-    Current state in Belgium

First, we must emphasize that men and women do not work in the same proportion in the various sectors. This difference is measured by the index of sectoral segregation. In Belgium, in 1997, this index displayed to 17.9% and 19.6% in 1999. This means that 17.9% of men and women (in 1997) and 19.6% of men and women (in 1999) should change the sector for the sector allocation is gender balanced. There is also a great imbalance between the number of sectors for male and female the number of sectors. By « male sector » means a sector where the share of men is higher than the share of women in total employment. There are male and 37 sectors and 18 sectors. This means that feminine employment is much more concentrated than the masculine employment. This is mainly caused by various differences such as: The hierarchical disparity. We found that 7.4% of men occupy management positions in 1999, against 4.1% of women. The more we advance in the hierarchy, this finding strengthens. It seems, however, noted an interesting development that should enable young generations of workers to play a more prominent role in the business world. There are also differences in working time. In fact, over the last twenty years, part-time work is growing steadily in Belgium. In 1983, it accounted for 7.7% of employment. In 1999, it reached 16.6%. The part-time work is also a predominantly feminine field. In 1999, 33% of employed women worked part-time against 4.3% male employees. Hence, a wage disparity exists. The factors that result in such unexplained wage inequality can be clearly identified: compensation differences between men and women by level of study, training or experience; definition of equal value (classification and job evaluation ) full-time part-time cons, pay structure (overtime, seniority, pay for performance, individualized pay) access to higher hierarchical functions, level and coverage of collective relations, access to training Internal and training financed by the government, organization and industrial structure (firm size, subcontracting), representation of women in trade unions, employer associations and bodies, negotiation or representation. To explain this low representation of women in executive committees, experts suggest the famous « glass ceiling » limit as intangible than real, which symbolizes the difficulty of access of women to higher positions. It contains many historical and structural causes. Of these, lack of sponsorship and internal and external network that play in the way of recruiting leaders – or the confinement of women to support functions. Communication, HRM is seen as female jobs, less valued, sales, production, the most prestigious positions, remain the preserve of men. But the reasons may be more subtle such as the lack of female role models-women in visible positions of responsibility – or barriers related to the evaluation systems developed and oriented according to the cycle of human life. The classics are still relevant: the presupposition of reduced availability of women-because of their family role – or again the stereotype about the lack of authority of women to lead a team. Some factors are related to women themselves. The behavioral aspects are now highlighted. When you ask the Belgian women, sexual identity is cited as one reason not to move more quickly in the professional sector and that 40% of them. Those in power are still prejudiced against women.

 

     F-     Current state in Sweden

The inequality of women relative to men in the field of labor and the economy in the industrialized and wealthy countries like Sweden, are due to mental structures as well as material which were built one building dialectically on the other, throughout the development and industrialization of modern society. An example of such structures both mental and material held in the coexistence of two conflicting logics, that of the individual and the family in contemporary society. The labor market is based on the concept of independent individual, while the family is based on the concept of group. Women are not always perceived as free individuals, but rather as people who may have one day to give priority to their family, whether their elderly parents or their children. The Swedish company is no stranger to these paradoxes. Thus, a few years ago, a Swedish government commission decided to address the demand for Swedish feminists: the generous Swedish parental leave, which make use mainly women is no longer transferable between parents but leave individual become as sick leave. The committee was in fact realized that if the Swedish fathers took no leave those that were earned in the event of individualization, the children could enter younger to take over the nursery where all the time that has its mother. What would be an obstacle to the ascent of women to high office.

 

Chapter 5: Emergence of feminine values in the corporate world/feminization of the corporate world

If values for men have long dominated the business world, it is now, they are no longer sufficient and are not a guarantee of efficiency. After remaining confined to family life, female values were entered subtle and quiet but still very real, both in politics and in the world of management because they are more effective in solving problems posed by the dynamics of change and competitive environments. So, do we attend a revival but also a desire for more accurate valuation of long feminine values depreciates.

The values for women or men are no longer the exclusive domain of sex. Studies show that three quarters of men and women find it normal that a man reveals its feminine sensibility, and that, conversely, a woman shows his sensitive male. A manager, regardless of gender, needs all its values and its qualities, both male and female, mixed teams to accompany the performance manager for their complementarity and develop his own leadership. In fact, the quality of a good manager is its ability to engage in varying proportions depending on the situation encountered, the masculine values of authority, obedience and feminine values more oriented toward consciousness and influence To better understand this we need to first define what is meant by male values and female values before considering a second time in the current situation prevailing in Belgium and Sweden.

             A-   Definitions

1 – Feminine values

These values are based on principles of maternity, natural power, harmony, and psychological strength. In fact, women, even if they work, are still mothers, wives and are still working after this past office. It follows that feminine values are: listening, flexibility, creativity, openness, cooperation, but also and above all, attention to detail. For this, they favor the measure, patience, sensitivity and willingness to accept ambiguous situations.

                     2 – Masculine values

As always seen as the authority in the family, male values are based on principles of territoriality, differentiation, independence, accountability and above all authority. It follows that the values for men: the rationality, force or higher authority, aggression, power and competition

B-   Current state in Belgium

Far from the lights of the media drama, a quiet revolution has to start in Europe. A first generation of women, who quietly carved a place for twenty years, now has enough years in insurance and maturity to push the business world on the path of change. One after another, companies are adopting measures for equal opportunities, often supported by « forties » anxious to provide a better future for their younger sisters. The increased participation of women is one of the major changes observed in the labor market in industrialized countries during the last generation.

In Belgium, the road ahead is still long to achieve such results. The underrepresentation of women managers is real. In March 2007, in a study on the wage gap between women and men, the Institute for Equality between women and men highlighted the underrepresentation of women at the top of the hierarchy in 2004, they constituted only 19% of executives-with a pay gap of 22.7% – and business leaders and executives, 34.1% wage gap. But this situation is changing in recent years, towards greater equity. One can not deny that there is a progression of women. They are growing at different hierarchical levels, not only as employees but also as entrepreneurs, on the boards of directors and management committees. Many companies have understood. « Especially in large companies that things are falling into place. Companies are looking for other leadership styles and skills. Examples abound. Janssen Pharmaceutica has launched the Women Leadership. Initiative to identify the specific challenges which are confronted women in recruitment and promotion within the company. Promote development opportunities, establish a mentor system, assisting in the establishment of internal and external networks, some tools are highlighted by the pharmaceutical group. For its part, Dexia has decided to increase the number of women in senior positions (28.71% in 2006), among others, by integrating aspects of diversity in management training programs, promoting better balance between private and professional life. Belgian bank has launched the network WINGS (Women Innovating Networking Solidarity), which aims to highlight leadership and innovation of women. Within the pharmaceutical group UCB, also, clear efforts have been made in terms of recruitment and selection. 2000 to present, the representation of women within the management team went from 10-18% worldwide. At the senior Belgian women now occupy 33% of the posts against 25% in 2000. « A cell has been established at the level of HR to ensure greater awareness of gender issues and on career opportunities. To help balance privacy and professional life, UCB offers the possibility of teleporting and has created on its site a domestic help (cleaning service, etc…).

C-    Current state in Sweden

The women managers and intellectual professions have increased over the past fifteen years. The strong growth in the education of girls has been associated with an increased role of women in these categories. This feminization profoundly affects the category of managers and engineers. Today, women constitute a significant proportion of the pool of available talent. In business schools, female students account for about half the workforce. Include Felice N. Schwartz 1: « There is simply not enough qualified men today occupy all positions». A company that puts in place a policy of recruiting collaborators, which promotes their development and strives to retain, will have access to 100% of the pool of talent, not just the male half. Women bring a perspective essential to the company. Among others, it is they who make the key decisions on purchases of consumer goods. Now, how are they to sit on the board of directors of large companies? A company can not do without the benefits of a joint management team. Feminism has evolved enough to admit that men and women are different. For a company that knows how to make the best use of their skills, women are a source of competitive advantage. Some companies understand finally, that diversity is a source of wealth, and that women bring different qualities of creativity to empathy through the gift of a welding team. Today, some employers insist on having at least one woman to the Executive Committee in this case, between two candidates with equivalent profile, they are now choosing a woman. But at the same time, recruiters and business leaders also agree on one point: at this level, there is a shortage of women on the market. The problem is not that their top is closed, but the path that leads to the summit remains challenging. Companies realize that their management team’s uniform does not necessarily satisfy the best of globalization, the evolution of their multicultural markets. They have more and more evidence that a policy of diversity leads to more innovation. Studies confirm that women bring a different perspective, complementary and enriching in a complex, globalized and hierarchizing. This vision of women, now seen as a strategic asset, began to replace the previous arguments in their favor, based more on principles of justice and equality of opportunity. Moreover, studies have shown that companies with a high percentage of women executives have high ratios of financial performance, but average difference is not very significant in relation to companies within it did not women between the companies that have a woman present. In contrast, companies that have at least one woman were significantly larger than the others and also have a higher number of directors. Despite the relative insignificance of the presence of women in top management, we find empirically that their presence positively influences business performance. Then, the presence of women in the bodies of large companies is probably a valuable resource that translates into results in terms of financial performance.

The Sweden is success because the best student exists in the field. The results are convincing because this Nordic country, which has imposed quotas on its business, is characterized by a very high rate of women administrators. Sweden has demonstrated its ability to rebalance the relationship between men and women. In this country, there are now almost as many women as men on the labor market. The key was the creation of child care. Good practice is to combine family and employment, because of the generalized system of childcare. For example, a man is entitled to paternity leave of six months with a salary compensation of 100%.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 6: Women in top-management positions: an opportunity?

             A-    Definitions

1 – Management

According to the dictionary Wikipedia, « The management or the management is the set of techniques for organizing resources that are implemented for the administration of an entity, including the art of directing men to obtain satisfactory performance. For the sake of optimization, it tends to respect the interests and representation of stakeholders in the company to take into account differences in time, risk and information.

2 – Top-management

This is the highest classification scheme, with titles such as Chairman, President, CEO, Managing Director, Chairman, executive directors, vice presidents, responsible for the entire company, etc. Senior management is reflected in the policy formulated by the Board of Directors, in the goals, objectives and strategies, and projects a shared vision of the future. He makes decisions that affect everyone in the organization, and is held fully responsible for the success or failure of the company.

              B-      Equal Opportunity and Diversity

            The diversity and equal opportunity in the workplace benefit everyone. Therefore a number of laws seek to promote and prevent all forms of discrimination. Indeed, companies are making steady progress strategies for diversity and equality in the workplace. They do not only for ethical and legal reasons, but also the clear business benefits they bring. In fact, many companies wish to go beyond legal requirements and lead the way in matters relating to diversity. The most important business benefit policies for diversity, highlighted by the Enterprise, is resolving deficiencies workforce, recruitment and retention activity of a highly qualified staff. The second most important commercial advantage lies in consolidation of the reputation of the company’s position in the local community. Many companies have stressed that what motivates them to apply these strategies to promote diversity, it is not required to conform to legal provisions on non-discrimination and equality, but the desired outcome of these strategies. This practice is, in fact, the bearer of tangible results. There are examples where a company succeeds in reducing the rate of staff turnover from 25% to less than 7.5% within four years, while achieving significant cost savings and job training. Most examples of good practice originated, in descending order, of companies located in the United Kingdom, Spain, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium. In the view of some companies, the main obstacles to the promotion of diversity are the lack of information on practices in diversity and lack of awareness of these issues, the difficulty of assessing outcomes and attitudes and discriminatory attitudes in the workplace. The diversity and therefore the integration of women in executive bodies are a key resource for improved company performance. The diversity of decision-making bodies is more a social and ethical, but it becomes important for companies to stay competitive.

But above all by a change in attitudes that will be possible to effectively fight against stereotypes and prejudices at work. The European agreement for equal opportunities in November 2006 was a number of measures to find and promote greater gender diversity in the profiles and career paths for employees. The agreement states in its preamble that professional equality is a right and that the mix is a professional collective enrichment factor of social cohesion and economic efficiency.

               C-      Cultural change: Feminine management

The economic turbulence shakes company currently requires leaders who can foster the achievement of organizational goals. To promote organizational health and parallel increase employee performance, the manager appears as a central player and influential. Women managers would they be in a better position to promote organizational health than their male colleagues? Women leaders today would be different aptitudes, men are known for their ability to decision making, administration, whereas women are perceived as having a participatory management style and people-oriented rather as costs or profits. They give greater autonomy to their employees and allow them to take initiatives. « Women would be more effective leaders than men in roles calling for cooperation, considered a female talent through their interpersonal skills, » wrote Francine Richer and Louise St-Cyr in Women’s Entrepreneurship in Quebec, a book published by Presses of the Montréal University. While many entrepreneurs think in terms of quality, they rely on a quality service to building customer durable. Thus, one could easily believe that the management of women is more promising for the company. It has been shown by their feminine values, women are more likely to adopt a transformational leadership style, said that men characterized by attributes such as listening, empathy, and authenticity. This leadership style encourages many positive relapsed in performance, while having a positive spin on the quality of work life, welfare of employees. Organizations that are concerned about developing the careers of women and their access to positions of top management derive competitive advantages in terms of results. It seems undeniable that women and men are certainly the most talented attracted to organizations that reward merit. In addition, the development of an organizational culture based on merit, where no individual is neither advantaged nor disadvantaged, should increase the quality of management at all levels. More than a competitive advantage, the diversity of the workforce has become an imperative for organizations. Companies which reduce the barriers faced by women managers to access a leadership post are reaped benefits in terms of performance and productivity. The women’s talents fully utilized to reduce their feelings of frustration and allow them to focus their energies on their real work. In addition, organizations that value the talents of their female leaders become more attractive to potential customers. For several reasons: first, women themselves become more effective, and these companies are planning a more favorable image among customers. And secondly, we can assume that women managers would be more in tune with female clients. Several studies have shown the existence of a specific management style among women. Helgesen (1990) for example, found that differences in management style between men and women are mainly explained by the values that women have integrated their socialization and education. Rosener (1990) proposed the term to describe interactive leadership style of women managers and transactional leadership to describe men. Women executives with a leadership style often use interactive qualities of participation, sharing power and information, and take care to reinforce self-esteem of others. Women have more concern for relationships, and insist more on process than on products or tasks. However, these leaders can be men or women. Rather, their attitudes and values those are associated with typical female roles.

Thus, since styles of management where women dominate men were correlated with the effectiveness of leadership and management styles in which men dominate women can not influence or have a negative influence on the leadership effectiveness, it seems that the differences are for women.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Conclusion:

The rise of female schooling and the feminization of the liberal professions and higher wage earners have not removed the obstacles faced by women to achieve the highest levels of power, prestige and pay. It seems obvious that problems concerning the status of women are classified in the rand Tote diversity, yet one wonders if this is not a very practical way of keeping women where they no longer wish to stay: a minority among others, just a matter of numbers. To work with a minority, it is important to understand the needs, to adapt a little bit to his habits and to invite her in small doses, to take part in the game Teaming up with a partner equal in number is quite different. The one who has held so far, a dominant position, obviously committed to lose its power.

There is, indeed, over the years, a significant increase in the participation rate of women. The fact remains that men are largely the majority in the workforce. Thus, in 2001, according to statistics from Eurostat, the participation rate of women in Belgium is 56% against 73% for men. Within the female population is the 25-49 age categories that shows the participation rate highest (77.3%). By cons, the other age groups perform an average result in terms of comparisons with the data within the European Union. The employment rate is the proportion of people with a job among those of working age (15-64 years). It reflects the ability of an economy to utilize its manpower. In the early 2000s, economic activity in Belgium has risen sharply. The employment rate has benefited even if it remains, overall, below the European average. By analyzing statistical data, there is an increase in the employment rate of women, but remains well below the European average. More and more women are showing a strong desire for company. Worldwide, women’s entrepreneurship continues to grow elsewhere and Belgium is no exception to the trend. To increase the overall employment rate in Belgium and give everyone an equal chance on the labor market, the government has implemented a series of measures targeting the most vulnerable groups on the labor market. These measures allow women, people with low qualifications, to immigrants, the disabled, young and old to participate fully in the labor market. Diversity at Work is a resource that allows in particular increasing the exchange of knowledge, to overcome the weaknesses of some by other forces, and eliminates stereotypes that circulate on certain groups of workers.

The road traveled to Belgium to gender equality is slow. In 1948 the electoral vote became possible for women. If in 1880 a Belgian woman can finally go to university, we must still wait until 2002 to see equality between men and women to register black and white in the Belgian Constitution. These are the Nordic countries, like Sweden, who practice the equality: since 2006 employers are required to submit a plan to promote equality between the sexes, otherwise they face sanctions and yet there are, again, a big gap between the reality and legal achievements. It is clear that despite the importance of progress, equality of opportunity is still far from complete. The promotion of equality between women and men implies changes for men than for women. Yet this is not the first time that Sweden is raised to the rank of example to follow. Today, the Swedish model seems in vogue for two reasons. On the one hand, Sweden is a country that has rapidly implements a number of structural reforms, such as pension reforms. On the other hand, growth has returned to a level high and the deficit turned into surplus, despite a relatively high rate of unemployment. The 1990s were a pivotal time for her, similar to the 1930s. This then saw the rise of Keynesian economics – introduced in Sweden by the Social Democratic Wigforss Ernst, and supported by a group of economists known as « Stockholm School » – which gave the state more place in the social and economic life. In the 1990s, Sweden made adaptation of its economic policy to the liberal doctrine in effect, subordinating the goal of full employment than price stability. However, even if women today find their seats at a senior corporate function, segregation of function is still seen as women managers are rarely directors making decisions on the Company’s economic plan. It should therefore, promote diversity in enterprises to take better advantage. Labor markets and social policies must adapt to a broadened concept of equality between men and women, which incorporates the values and constraints specific to each gender diversity in the workplace adds a special richness, but also challenges individuals, diverse working relationships are essential to business success.

To summarize, we will ask more generally the problem of women in economic life and development of feminist politics: What role does it play in structural inequalities and gender relations as a social construction? What are we talking about when we talk about women, their place and their influence in the world of work? As I stated, the model of equality based on gender does not solve all problems, or there is an adjustment to the male world of politics, or, despite clear distinctions, it social practices, cultural and political breed with persistence of differences based on criteria of sex. To avoid essentialist view, we need to redefine concepts of feminine subjectivity as we must redefine the feminine as something beyond the symbolic order of hierarchy based on sex that prevails today. It seems that the traditional way of thinking about equality and political equality does not necessarily help us to overcome the division in which guides our analysis of gender relations and gender equality. If it appears that differences in occupations contribute significantly to income inequality, measures contributing to a more balanced representation of men and women in different occupations or revised measures of occupational classifications are appropriate. If the effects of seniority or experience are important, the relevance of systems of career break can be questioned. If the difference in pay with identical characteristics is important, we will investigate why such a common experience is remunerated differently for women and men.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bibliography:

– G. Calvès « policy of positive discrimination » policies and social issues No. 876, June 1999
– « Women in labor markets: measuring progress and Identifying Challenges, » International Labour Office – Geneva March 2010
– Qvist G « policy Towards women and women’s struggle in Sweden » Scandinav Journal of History, Volume V, P. 51-74
– Mr. Stroobants, Know-how and skills to work. A  sociology of manufacturing skills, Brussels, Ed from the University of Brussels, 1983.

Websites:

– www.wikipedia.com
– www.cairninfo.com
– www.cne.gnc.be
– www.aclvb.be
– www.ocde.org