Music education, from delinquency to a responsible and productive citizenship

Introduction

Delinquency is increasing in our actual society, particularly, in young people. Education is important to correct this inappropriate behaviour. But education is still a very complex and delicate domain. Many steps were undertaken in order to give the adequate education to people, but difficulties still persist in our society. Delinquency, violence, and crimes are still increasing. This situation leads our reflection to search for a method that can attract, and interest young, in order to make them good citizens.

Before getting to the centre of our subject, we must wonder what is a “good citizen”, what means citizenship? Citizenship is an important notion that was introduced in schools and universities and was also inculcated to immigrants in order to protect security and to establish a harmonious environment. Citizenship was firstly associated to a set of political practices including public rights and duties toward a political community. Citizenship hits in voting, speaking out. With this political citizenship, there is a democratic citizenship. This involves opportunity and right of citizens to vote in order to change the political situation of their countries (Bellamy, 2008). Citizenship can be defined by other authors as “a right to certain things”. It is a “practice of rights, of pursuing one’s own rights and assuming the rights of others within legal, political, social and even cultural communities that have been formed for purposes of this kind” (Beiner, 1995). Citizenship was for long time associated to public schooling, social virtue and democracy. It is associated to a « sense of belonging, of membership in a community, a way of identifying in and with the world » (Allsup, 2010).

To another one, citizenship involves patriotism, conservation of the name and the prestige of the country. This last definition involves membership, personal power, including self esteem and confidence to take part, democratic values, political and human rights, civic involvement and responsibility, accountability, meaning responsibility to make decision, knowledge and skills, participation in democratic decision-making and constitution, implying written and unwritten rules that governing societal status (19).

After defining the citizenship, we are conducted then to explain first, what are different points that can be developed or changed in order to develop a child to a good citizen, in spite of societal, political and economical constraints to which he is confronted. How young people can be educated in order to make them brilliant persons, responsible and having their place in the society? This first questions leads to the notion of music education.

Music interests everybody, but it attracts particularly young people. So, music can be considered as one way to educate young people. We must ask ourselves then, how can we inculcate education to youth, in order to cultivate a good citizenship. How educators can proceed to avoid delinquency of youth and to implant citizenship by using music? In this study, we are conducted to ask about the functioning of music education in preventing delinquency and in rehabilitating criminal persons to good citizens.

However, in spite of educating people, and after all steps that were undertaken to help them to be good citizens, we still see that criminality is getting more and more important in our present society. Peoples who has done offences to another citizen, or those who made breaches with regard to society must be pursued. Rules governing a given society are not punishment for offenders, but they act as tags to protect the harmony within the society. It was observed nevertheless, that there are still individuals that break those rules. As a result, they are jailed.

It is necessary to note that no matter what they have done in the past, they are still human. They come from our society, so the society must undertake measures to welcome those persons. Imprisonment is a very hard experience for ancient jailed persons. This can modify personality, psychology and even the lifestyle of the criminal. This has necessarily impacts on his family and his close relation’s life. This leads to the second question: How music education can be used to rehabilitate criminals?

The main objective of our study is then to determine the place of music education in establishing good citizenship in our present society. A secondary objective involves determination of the place of music education in preventing delinquency, and in rehabilitating criminals. Our study also aims to establish a nonviolence program by music education.

Our study is divided in three main parts. In the first part, we will analyze the importance of education in structuring citizenship. We will try to understand the complexity of education and the main factors that must be taken into account in order to make the message pass to youth. This part will introduce us to the concept of music education.

The second part concerns the correlation between music and delinquency. In this part, we will try to analyze how music can influence youth. We will also try to seize the importance of music for youth, and then how it can be exploited as an important support for education.

Finally, in the third part, we will study potentialities of music in rehabilitating criminals. We will observe different approaches that were used by different countries in order to rehabilitate criminals. Some techniques developed by organization will be analyzed in the third part.

• The place of education in structuring citizenship

1. Delinquency and criminality increase, the challenge of the century

Before talking about statistical results about crimes and delinquency all over the world, it is interesting to remind here the definitions of those terms.

Delinquency can be defined as a “failure in or omission of duty, a fault or a crime”. But in regard of law, delinquency is “a pattern of behaviour which is disapproved by the courts of law”. For the society, a delinquency means a “type of behaviour that is not socially accepted” (Pal, 2011). The term “delinquency, is often associated to inappropriate behaviour adopted by children and adolescent. We talk about “juvenile delinquency”. In another hand, people use the term “crime” to talk about offence in adult.

Delinquency is more and more important in our present society. It is an observed phenomenon all over the world. Delinquency is reported on different ages but it occurs particularly in young persons. In Asian countries like Beijing, schoolchildren killing were reported. In China, authorities have recorded an increase of juvenile delinquency last years. This increase is particularly associated to the change of social an economic situations in China. Because of a sudden and rapid economic growth, this country saw a deep change in the society.  This changes concern traditional norms, values and ethics (Siegel and Welsh, 2011). They were also reported to be caused by dysfunction and poor communication in families, the disorders resulting from globalization, weakened family ties, generation gaps (Finley, 2007).

Delinquencies also increase in Japan, Korea and Singapore. In those countries, youth delinquency is yet lower than adult’s crimes. But it takes importing proportions. In addition, present Asian societies are witness of different deviating behaviour from youth, such as organized crimes, alcoholism, drug abuse, prostitution, sex work, rape, robbery, and theft (Finley, 2007).

To face this situation, Chinese government adopted a more human approach. It consists in preventing and teaching young people to prevent crimes rather than punishing and repressing them (Siegel and Welsh, 2011). To illustrate this statement, Chinese government established in Shanghai in 1984, the Juvenile Court. In 1991, he established the Juvenile Protection Law consisted in defining and protecting legal rights and interests of juveniles. It was then admitted that education is the first pillar of delinquency prevention. In 1999, Chinese government established the Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Law, awarding the role and the implications of parents in preventing delinquency of their child. In this optics, parents must supervise their children and give them moral education in order to improve their behaviour and their attitudes. This law also offers self prevention for juvenile. In fact, they are responsible of developing self-discipline and self-respect, while improving their capacity to resist to temptations to participate in crime or to commit an offence. They must report any abuse or abandonment by their parents and to warn authorities if they saw any delinquent behaviour by others (Regoli et al., 2009).

In Africa, juvenile delinquency is very important. Many African countries recorded the presence of youth gangs like the Hooligan Boys, the Mafia boys and the Eagles. African gangs live in Western Coasts of Africa, Dakar and Senegal. Violence is often due to poverty, ethnic tensions and differences between rich and poor persons (Siegel and Welsh, 2011). Juvenile delinquency is also very important in South Africa. They result from unemployment, poverty and availability of guns. South African youth consider violence as an acceptable way to solve and to avoid problems (20).

Western countries were reported for a long time to be a scene for juvenile delinquency. After the Second World War, this phenomenon propagated all over the world and in developed countries. Research on this delinquency showed that it has its origin on rapid industrialization and urbanization (Pal, 2011). Statistical data indicate that except in United States of America, the amount of delinquency increased. Since 1995, amount of juvenile crimes increased more than 30% in Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. That inappropriate behaviour is often associated to drug abuses and excessive alcohol use in children and adolescents (16).

Concerning delinquency in children and adolescents, it was remarked that those behaviours are particularly encouraged by bad frequentations. Juvenile crimes are always done in groups.  It was admitted that delinquent behaviour is learned and assessed in groups. In 2004, about 82% of delinquent were members of a group. When they were too young when they were arrested, those young delinquents have a higher recidivism when they grow. So this becomes a vicious cycle in which, delinquent cannot have the opportunity to change his life. He can commit then his crime all alone (Williams, 2007).

It was also assumed, that delinquency can result from mistreatment of a child. This includes sexual abuse that deeply changes personality, and emotional development of the child. Sometimes, parents do not control the activities of their child. Consequently, they are more vulnerable to bad frequentations. Parents can also show disinterest toward their child, there is no or very poor communication at home. In addition, delinquent can be a child who has never respected discipline, or an appalled child because of the lack of one of his parents or, because of the poverty. It was observed that education level of parents can conduct their child to delinquency (Williams, 2007). So, given education to pupils must encourage them and motivate them to learn and not to deviate in delinquency but to be someone better.

Except for the environment in which the child develops, and his relationships with his parents, some authors reported that psychological state of the juvenile can conduct him to misbehave. Intense frustration for example can supply enough energy for delinquency (Hirschi, 2002).  This figure shows represents the family risks and need factors of juvenile offenders.

Figure 1: Family risks and need factors of juvenile offenders

The most important factor noted is the major disorganization observed in juvenile offenders (58%). 46% of them were abused by their parents or have done substance abuse. 42% of them have jailed parents or parent who has probation. 38% of juvenile offenders were victims of domestic violence in their families. Well, such children are more susceptible to present childhood behavioural, social and emotional problems compared to children who undergo such experience. When a child witnesses violent acts, it always stands out in the memory and the behaviour of the child. These emotions and impacts are severe and long-lasting (23). As a result, the child is vulnerable and misbehave.

Other researchers categorized the causes of delinquencies. But it still conducts to many theories about delinquencies. Clevenger and Birkbeck (1996) distinguished three main causes of delinquency. They include individual, socialization and societal problems. Individual differences involve physiological and personality problems. This first group conducts to the individual theories such as biological theories and psychological or psychoanalytic theories. According this theory, offenders have different physical constitution than non-offenders. In addition, it is hypothesized that criminals have predisposition to act negatively toward the society (psychological theory of crime). Such individual is supposed to:

• Search for immediate gratification
• Be egocentric in the point of only search their own satisfaction than other’s
• Act according to their instinct without thinking about social implications of their actions (Siegel, 1992).

Criminals are also considered as persons who have mental disorders, or persons in need of treatment. Crime is consequently considered as a symptom of mental disorders.

The second cause implies the socialization problems, including inappropriate values, weak links to conventional society, and negative or deviant self-images. Socialization problems lead to process theories. They concern differential association, differential reinforcement, techniques of neutralization, social control theory, and symbolic interaction or symbolic labelling (Clevenger and Birkbeck, 1996). In this concept, criminals were early in contact with frequentations who taught them criminal attitudes. In this case, individuals learn criminal behaviour at the same time as they interact with society. So, criminal behaviour is learnt as any other social behaviour. This can not happen unless the child is exposed to an environment favourable for crimes (Akers, 1994). We can consider for example poor district as favourable environment for development of criminal behaviour. Likewise, violent familial circle may constitute a favourable environment for criminals.

Figure 2: Individual risk and need factors

Individual risk and need factors are represented on figure 2. This figure shows us that mental health diagnosis is very important in juvenile offenders in 2001 (56%). Many of them are incorrigible, had bad frequentations or presented curfew problems. 40% abused of illicit substances. Mental health diagnoses may result from psychotropic medications. It was reported that 11% to 19% of individuals of 12 to 21 years old have mental illness.

Somehow, we can see on figure 2 that there are a low proportion of individuals that present a productive activity. They practice sports, or are members of church or school club. Some of them work (23).

Other authors stipulated that criminals have the same values than non-offenders, but they acquired a certain technique permitting them to neutralize those values and beliefs temporarily. As results, they deny responsibility, injury, victim, condemnations and loyalties. Instead of regretting their act, they always find an excuse (Sykes and Matza, 1957).

In addition, the symbolic interactionist theory stipulates that human defines himself according to the process of social interactions. This last conditions his identity, self-concept, values, and attitudes (Clevenger and Birkbeck, 1996). This theory returns us in the concept of the environment which models our behaviour, identity and personality. Consequently, preventing delinquency and criminality in youth as well as in adults, needs consideration of the interactions between individual and his environment.

The third main cause regroups societal problems including poor social or poor community integration, lack of opportunities for legitimate advancement, plurality of the society, difference of values, opportunities for crime, lack of surveying, and lack of accountability. Those last causes conduct to structural theories including social disorganization theory, anomie, strain theories, cultural theory, routine activity theory and deterrence theory (Clevenger and Birkbeck, 1996). It was stipulated that criminality is caused mainly by social disorganization and on pathological environment rather than on abnormality of individuals (Hagan, 1990).

In another hand, too spoiled children develop more criminal behaviours because they do not have self-discipline. If everybody tells a child that he is intelligent and brilliant, he would not feel the necessity of fighting (Laframboise, 2011).

Yet today, there is an ambiguity concerning the real cause of criminal behaviour in our society. Those criminals in fact, are not different to us in their physical appearance either in their behaviours at the first sight. But there are statistical facts that we can consider. We can observe for example on figure 3 the scale of the phenomenon in various age groups. And we can have an idea of the repartition of crimes in different countries all over the world in table 1. Those statistical analyzes allow us to know that crime is present everywhere and in any age group. Consequently, another factor can be on the basis of delinquency and criminal activities: education.

Figure 3: Percentage of persons accused of crimes by age in Canada in 2010 (source: http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/res/cp/res/ssyr-eng.aspx).

This figure shows us the amount of persons implied in crimes in Canada. Those persons are 12 to 55 years old. This proportion is expressed by percentage of persons having the same age. We can observe that crime can be committed by young as well as by old people. Figure 3 shows us, that the crime is particularly important in people about 15 to 23 years old. A peak was recorded on 18 years old.

The proportion of criminals gradually decreased in other ages. It is particularly low at persons having 55 years old and more, and on youth having 12 years old. This gives us an idea to determine in what stage of development, can educators act in order to prevent delinquencies. We can say according to this figure, that students can be prevented from delinquencies, if they receive adequate education under 12 years old.

Table 1: Crime amount in different countries, source: http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/cri_tot_cri-crime-total-crimes/

Rank	Countries	Amount
1	United States of America	11.877.218
2	United Kingdom	6.523.706
3	Germany	6.507.394
4	France	3.771.850
5	Russia	2.952.370
6	Japan	2.853.739
7	South Africa	2.683.849
8	Canada	2.516.918
9	Italy	2.231.550
10	India	1.764.630
11	South Korea	1.543.220
12	Mexico	1.516.029
13	Netherlands	1.422.863
14	Poland	1.404.229
15	Argentina	1.340.529
16	Sweden	1.234.784
17	Belgium	973.548
18	Spain	923.271
19	Chile	593.997
20	Thailand	565.108
21	Ukraine	553.594
22	Austria	552.411
23	Finland	520.194
24	Denmark	4914.026
25	New Zealand	427.230
26	Hungary	420.782
27	Czech Republic	372.341
28	Zimbabwe	351.153
29	Norway	330.071
30	Romania	312.204
31	Switzerland	307.631
32	Turkey	286.482
33	Morocco	283.702
34	Venezuela	236.165
35	Portugal	218.360
36	Colombia	214.192
37	Malaysia	167.173
38	Peru	161.621
39	Bulgaria	148.915
40	Uruguay	134.010
41	Belarus	132.867
42	Tunisia	130.375
43	Slovakia	107.373
44	Greece	102.783
45	Croatia	101.853
46	Lithuania	92.646
47	Philippines	85.776
48	Saudi Arabia	84.599
49	Slovenia	81.697
50	Ireland	81.274
51	Hong Kong	80.592
52	Iceland	60.242
53	Zambia	59.426
54	Estonia	57.799
55	Latvia	49.329
56	El Salvador	44.762
57	Costa Rica	40.263
58	Jamaica	39.188
59	Kyrgyztan	38.620
60	Moldova	36.302
61	Mauritius	35.943
62	Bolivia	31.138
63	Luxembourg	26.046
64	Yemen	24.066
65	Panama	21.058
65	The Macedonia	21.058
66	Republic of Former Yugoslav	19.814
67	Kuwait	19.350
68	Burma	18.301
69	Malta	17.023
70	Azerbaijan	15.520
71	Georgia	15.029
72	New Papua	13.292
73	Cyprus	13.023
74	Armenia	12.048
75	Oman	11.782
76	Nepal	8.872
77	Dominica	7.857
78	Maldives	7.026
79	Qatar	5.838
80	Albania	5.303
81	Seychelles	4.297
82	Montserrat	751
	Total	63.531.202
	Weighted average	7.747.708

Table 1 shows that every country all over the world is concerned by crimes. Here, we can observe that there was 63 531 202 crimes committed in the world in 2011. And those crimes happened mainly in developed countries.

The United States of America is the country where, the greatest amounts of crimes were recorded. They are followed by the United Kingdom. But there is an important difference between the numbers recorded in United States of America and in the United Kingdom. In fact, about half of the amount recorded in USA was recorded in UK. This high amount of crimes may result from the high number of populations at the USA and the magnitude of this State.

Low level of recorded crimes is observed in countries which are not as great as USA, and presenting low population density. Montserrat was shown to record the lowest amount of crimes.

In 2010, the UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime) in Vienna counted 468.000 homicides all over the world. 36% of those homicides happened in Africa, 31% in America, 27% in Asia, 5% in Europe and 1% in Oceania. Their studies also showed disparity on typology. There are homicides related to robbery, gangs, fights, sexual motives and familial disputes. But there is also another form of homicides. This new form concerns crime and gangs. Homicides are often accompanied by use of firearms. The number and properties of crime seem to be deeply affected by global financial crisis in 2008- 2009 (UNODC, 2011). In fact, economic crisis provokes social crisis and this result in increasing of crimes and different offences.

Crimes, violence and delinquency are a loss not only for the family and for the individual himself, but it is also an indirect loss for the Nation, because he has lost a potentially productive citizen (Williams FP, 2007).

Considering those numbers, and these statistical results we must wonder why, crimes are mainly committed in developed countries? Why in underdeveloped countries, the amount of crimes is very low? It leads us in considering the education system, which can be the common point in poor as well as in developed countries. Education system is not the same for those countries but everywhere in the world, youth education is considered as the main factor that can model a good citizenry for every child and every individual.

1. The place of education in citizenship establishment

Public education was a very delicate domain. For a long time, education and citizenship making was considered as the main responsibility of schools (Allsup, 2010). Education is important in structuring citizenship in young people.

The notion of citizenship is associated with public schooling, social virtue and democracy (Allsup, 2010). At school in fact, pupils, do not only learn basic subjects, but this place also forms a good citizen, a respectable and responsible person in the society. Some researchers have determined the character of a “good citizen”.

A citizen is described as a person able to solve social problems, and to improve society. He is an honest, law-abiding, worker and volunteer person. A good citizen is a person who participates actively to improve society. A good citizen is also described as a person who has a sharpened sense of justice. He can debate and use democratic procedures in order to establish changes in the society. Considered on this point de view, citizenship implies consequently, the notion of democracy. According to some authors, democracy citizenship can be acquired by music education (Reimer, 2009).

To illustrate this fact, we can consider the case of Hong Kong and Taiwan. In fact, extra-musical transmission learning can satisfy special needs of those two Chinese Communities. Music is considered then, as a method of inculcating citizenship. Music education is at the centre of promoting national identity and an important tool for the establishment of set of moral values. This also transmits the ethno-cultural nationalism in Taiwan. Henceforth, music education is a democratic goal for this State (Wai-Chung, 2010).

Citizenship implies that student has knowledge, skills and understanding to take up place in society. Education must permit students to do their work with consciousness. Citizens must do their duties toward societies and the Nation, and to be informed of their rights. Citizenship encourages students to have respect of another person’s religion, ethnic identities (Lawton et al., 2005).

At the end of citizenship education, children must:

• Know and understand the components of a healthy lifestyle
• Understand conditions to establish good relationships with others
• Respect others
• Be independent and responsible
• Be active in a democratic society
• Have a developed self-confidence and self-esteem
• Make choices face to personal and social issues
• Have good relationships with other members of the school and all the community (21).

Citizenship education includes in other hand, the improvement of developmental functions such as cultivation of social solidarity, democratic citizenship and national identity (Kennedy, 1997). This training must provide to children the sense of truth, honesty, justice, trust and duty (Clough and Holden, 2002).

But the fact is that now, we are attending for technological progress, leading to the disappearance of public, collective and social process of education. Henceforth, schools are universalized and there is a process of acculturation and inculturation. It seems as if education includes diverse populations and promotes unifying national cultures (Kennedy, 1997). How can we then teach to youth solidarity? How can we teach them to have good relationships when they can stay at home and learning in a virtual school?

In addition, the phenomenon of inculturation and acculturation is controlled with difficulty. Youth are particularly vulnerable to the vague of practices which come from other countries. They can attract them, but they often do not resist to it. It results in a loss of identity. In fact, if technological tools may be considered as a way to improve education and other tasks, it was observed that this tool like Internet can be dangerous for youth in so far as it may changes his value.

This phenomenon was already observed in Asian countries where juvenile delinquency is henceforth in increase because of the loss of values. We must wonder how young people can build up to himself a character and an identity when he is confronted with such pressures. Youth generally succumb easily to the influences of external factors including relations. Yet, children are trying hard to be good citizens in contrasting environments (Clough and Holden, 2002). But it was observed that they often do not control changes in their environments.

There is another notion that must be considered: the « multicultural education ». Teachers must search for the best method to facilitate comprehension by students from diverse races, cultures, ethnic groups, languages and gender groups. They have to adapt their teaching styles in order to reflect the diversity of their students. None of them would feel as excluded (Allsup, 2010). Students must feel respected and worthy of the education and his future career (Banks, 2006) no matter who he is, where he comes from or what he is.

But all those steps can not be reached if student cannot experience actively and have reflections about democratic action in school. They can take responsibility for example at school or at their communities. This is supposed to permit students to have a certain democratic competence. Training begins from primary education to secondary education (Sliwka et al., 2006).

Education is delicate in so far as every student is particular. Every one has its own way to learn and to assimilate lessons. Likewise, pupils do not have the same motivation to come in classroom. Some of them wants to learn, others no. But they will come in just to be with their friends. It was observed that only motivation of pupils can facilitate learning, because they really want to learn. So, school programs that only consider cognitive and behavioural deficits do not give the expected results (Mc Cord et al., 2000). The problem is then to know, how to attract youth? What tool can be used? What will interest them?

Music can be considered as one thing that youth appreciate. So, “music education” was born. But innovation at school is always very delicate to establish. They must be evaluated before using it at a large scale. We are talking about education. Youth are able to assimilate things that were inculcated to them; no matter it was good for them or not. It is interesting to remark here that this assessment is focused particularly on possible negative impacts of education system on children and adolescent (Mc Cord et al., 2000).

1. Music education: a new approach to form good citizens?

• Definition

Music education was then considered as an important tool to establish good citizenship in our present society. Music education can be defined as « the teaching of all things music-related ». This definition implies that people can learn not only to play music but also, to appreciate it and to take completely advantage of it (3).

• Subjects

Music education includes organology and musicology in order to improve musicianship, performance and several others for the student (3). Voice and instrumental lessons, history, theory and research about music are also included in this domain (4). We will define one by one those terms to have a clearer view about music education.

Organology is the « descriptive and analytical study of musical instruments ». This branch classifies instruments from different cultures and epochs (5). This branch studies different classification system, but the Hornbostel-Sachs’s is the most used by students. Organology also analyzes how those instruments produce song (6).

Musicology is the « academic study of music and its history » (7). To study music, students must consider different other domain including history, culture, gender, philosophy, aesthetics, semiotics, ethnology, cultural anthropology, archaeology, prehistory, psychology, sociology, physiology, neuroscience, acoustics, psychoacoustics, computer sciences and mathematics. Musicology is very important as far as students can perform their practice and research, theory, analysis and music composition (8). Consequently, student can listen and open in other’s culture. They learn the evolution of music all over the world; they study the disparity between this international language which is the music. This constitutes a first step in accepting, respecting and appreciating other’s culture.

Voice lessons permit students to know, different strategies and behaviours that can be adopted while singing, in order to improve their voice, and to prevent vocal cords damages (12). This training tries to teach how to shape the voice from words (13). Voice lessons can be done parallel to learning different instruments.

Those subjects help students to acquire a musicianship. Musicianship is « the artistry in performing music » (9). Many of us would like to play music but this is an art. Considered on this point of view, it can not be learned by anyone. Among people who know playing music, few are able to perform it. Musicianship was defined by other researchers as « the ability to fully understand music » (10). Some people in fact, directly understand and appreciate music, but others work for it. This justifies the importance of music education for students and everybody.

Considering all this point, we can say that music education is very tentacular domain. Playing music needs implication from students.

• Who can receive music education?

Everybody can learn music. Music education especially starts during the formative years of children. When they grow, the can deepen their training by joining choirs, glee clubs and school bands, in order to widen their knowledge and to improve their performance. In fact, this next stage improves fundamental comprehension of music. If student decides to go farther, he follows music classes in some colleges and universities. After such route, student can get degree that permits him to become professional musician, music teacher, studio technician, etc. (11).

• Principles

Principles of music education are based on the works of Leo Kestenberg. Music is an artistic but not a technical subject. It can be taught by an academically trained professional school music teacher. But this last must also be trained in a second academic subject, by persons who have only master singing. Finally, music educators must have followed training in artistic, scientific and pedagogy, so, he knows pedagogic aspects of a comprehensive course of music educator (Cox and Stevens, 2010).

Music education must permit students and pupils to access to metaphorical processes including

• Transforming tones into “tunes “ and tunes, gestures
• Transforming the tunes and gestures into structures
• Transforming these symbolic structures into significant experience (Swanwick, 1999).

Swanwick (1999) for her part proposed that music education is firstly based on the care for music as discourse. In this concept, music teacher has to teach listening to pupils. On the other hand, music education is based on the care for the musical discourse of students. After listening, they can express themselves through music. During the training, educators must take care of the achievement and the autonomy of students.

Music education aims to teach music but this must be a multiculturalist education. In fact, music is an international language and concerns people all over the world. So, teachers must consider this multiculturalism notion (Volk, 2004). Consequently, they have to consider not only, music from his countries, but must open to other cultures.

Music education is considered as an efficient way to cultivate a good citizenship of youth. Music interests and attracts youth. But it is important that educators teach youth to listen, to play and to appreciate music. Music is linked with communal culture, and is involved in the life of each person. To perform, to share, to compose and to learn or teach music can be considered as a way to cultivate good citizenship (Griggs, 1936). This notion involves a belonging to a group, or a community, but also, an identity in and with the world (Allsup, 2010). The identity involves a consideration of cultures.

• Interactions between music education and other factors

Music education can influence and be influenced by many factors. External influences can change the perception and the assimilation of the training by students. Environment of the concerned person including home, family, professional or school relationships, and the social environment outside the home or school can be considered as the main factor influencing music education. Music education is based primarily on the educators. Then, it depends also on « social environment of instruction ».

Environmental factors such as culture, technology and instructional practices must be consequently considered before beginning the courses. Concerning the influence of the development on learning, it was reported that the importance of music can change with the age. It is more easy for pupils and young children to learn music, in opposite of adults. In fact, adults know different constraints for learning. This includes family constraints. They have many things to do even after their work and this result in increase of stress. Time can be a major factor influencing the appreciation of music in adult persons. Nowadays, we are always on a hurry to work, to finish something, and we often neglect the importance of few minutes of respite. But social influences can also change the impact and the perception of music on youth. Learning can be considered as a way to improve social interactions, interpersonal relationships and communication with others.

Well, music can be influenced by other factors. It was shown that home and family environments can have negative impacts on music achievement, music aptitude, music performance scores, instrument choice, ensemble participation, and practicing and musical style preference. To illustrate this, we observe that conflicts in family can lead to a musical success whereas conflicts implying family, students and teachers lead to poor results (Ward-Steinman, 2011).

In addition, achievement of student while they practicing may depend on the help of their parents. Even those last do not have acquired degree to teach music to their children, they can encourage them to continue on this way. They can listen to them and discuss with them. Encouragement and support from parents and the whole family are always necessary for the musical development of the child.

If we see that delinquency is still present and increases in our present society, it may suggest that the message, the civism learnt at school was not assimilated by youths. Those persons are very young; they have to face many experiences in their life, so it is important that education can help them in their achievement. Music is considered as one method that interests students. This leads us to consider in this second part, the correlation between delinquency and music. But this music education would not be perfect unless the director teach teachers within his program (Nor and Ilias, 2012). The next question is then to know how music functions to transmit citizenship to young people and to prevent them from delinquencies.

• Delinquency and music

1. Negative effects of music on delinquency proliferation

It was reported that music can actually be dangerous for young people because youths often like music. Well, that kind of music can transmit dangerous messages leading listeners to suicide, illicit drugs use, transgressive behaviours and delinquency (Christenson and Roberts, 1998). For example, adolescents who like heavy metal music are more sensitive to drunk-driving, speeding, use of alcohol and illicit drugs excessively, and transgressive sexual behaviour (Arnett, 1991). They often have aggressive thoughts and feelings (Anderson et al., 2003).

In another hand, metal and rap songs are associated with rebellion (Carpentier et al., 2003). So, metal and rap fans often show inappropriate behaviour. They often have not good family relationships, and do not have or oppose basic social institutions such as school, church and society in general (Miranda and Claes, 2004).

It is interesting to remark here, that the effects of music on personality, behaviour and emotions depend closely to the kind of music. For example, Heavy Metal music that attracts many young people, was reported to drive many of them to suicide. Those who prefer heavy metal music are more vulnerable to use alcohol, illegal drugs, and to show aggressive emotions (Lacourse et al., 2001). It was also shown that the influence of music on adolescent was dependant of their age. But the effects of this last factor are moderate. It was shown that the worshipping of music decreases when the age increases (Raviv et al., 1996). So, this fact justifies the importance of educating young people by music culture from their very young age.

Preference of such music was particularly important at youths. This kind of music attracts them. Young people also constitute the majority of producers of metal and rap music that is associated to violence. Rock music encourages youth to transgress conventional morality and law, whereas a rap lyric encourages them to challenge authority. Those musics often talk about sex exploitation, rape, murder, robbery, drugs and in some cases, attack police and politicians (Regoli et al., 2009).

In this concept, music can be the cause of deviant behaviours, particularly in young people. We must note somehow, that heavy metal and rap music, that were considered to be at the origin of negative thoughts, suicide and aggressive behaviours attract more youth nowadays. Then, how can we proceed to transform music into an efficient tool for preventing delinquencies? To reply to this question, we must consider the characteristics of young people.

1. Youth’s characteristics and aims

Adolescent always show curiosity. They are sensitive and vulnerable to everything, but they often do not know the impact of certain acts. They need to develop in their environment. Adventure is still important at this age and adolescent and youth are attracted to search for a new experience, they never had. During childhood and adolescence, youth are particularly confronted to many constraints. They experience a wide range of physical, emotional, cognitive and behavioural changes. When they grow up, they must face in different social situations such as day care and school. They interact actively with their environment. This is a phenomenon of socialization during which, children and adolescents interact with other persons. There begin a serial of changes in development of the child.

First, infancy is characterized by the fact that children have social interactions with their caregivers including first their parents and their families. Sometimes, this interaction is positive and conducts to the development of the child in every dimension. But it was also observed that those relationships can be bad. It is the case of child abuses during their infancy, leading to a deviant behaviour from the child. The relationships between the infant and his parents are the first criteria of the personality and the character of the child.

After this first step, children go to school. There, they meet educators and other children. This step also models the behaviour and the life perception from the child. By age of ten or seven, children interest to the values and rules. The age of eleven to thirteen tallies with empathic stage. During this period, children try to understand each other and begin to engage self-disclosure. As the empathy is present, henceforth, children decrease the number of their close friends in order to increase intimacy (Ribner, 2002).

During adolescence, youth begin to spend more time with peers and friends on group setting. This step is important in as far as this corresponds to the first separation from his parents. This is an opportunity to try to do many things that they can not do with their families. They try to confirm their personality. Adolescence is the period during which, youth make dating, and begin relationships with their peers. This step allows them to practice relationship skills in order to have an idea about adult roles. A relationship for adolescents is an opportunity to have companionship, recreation, intimacy satisfaction. It is also an occasion to learn about trust, commitment, self-discourse, dependency and power (Ribner, 2002).

The relationship with peer is very important because, it conditions the motivation and efficacy of the child at school and his sensitivity to education. In fact, adolescent often try to increase his conformity with peers. This includes fashion, music, slang, and leisure activities. As result, adolescents are very vulnerable to the influences of external factors. Those factors may be their friends and relations, but sometimes, those youth are also influenced by their parents, particularly concerning their future carrier. Parents may do a pressure on their child about moral values but they do not constraint their child for music or language (Ribner, 2002). If we consider the attitude and the behaviour of adolescents, they can be classified in three groups:

• Popular kids
• Rejected kids
• Neglected and controversial kids

Adolescence is never easy for many of us. Somehow, there are some exceptions. There are “popular kids” who have never been rejected by their peers. They show sociability and good leadership skills. They are less aggressive and less withdrawn. Such teens have sense of self-worth, self efficacy. They are often curious, enthusiast, and have positive attitudes. They have never been rejected because the others admire them in general (Ribner, 2002).

On other hand, there are rejected kids. This group can be divided to two subgroups. The first subgroup is rejected because of their aggressiveness or because of their lack of sociability skills. Such teens have difficulty to control their emotions. This first subgroup is susceptible to become delinquent. The second subgroup collects rejected kids. Those kids are often timid and present anxiety in certain social situations. Consequently, their timidity and anxiety lead them to be less social, to be reticent and to search for solitude. Even though they were rejected, they are not at risk to be delinquent persons (Ribner, 2002).

Some adolescents can be considered as neglected kids. As their classification indicates, they were remarked by their peers but they do not take care of them because they do not interact more than others. Some of them are not social, but are not aggressive (Ribner, 2002).

Finally, there are controversial kids. Those last show acceptance as well as rejection. Sometimes, they can be aggressive, and sometimes they show social skills (Ribner, 2002). As a result, it is very difficult to understand them.

Adolescent are confronted to perturbations. They want to confirm their personalities by making decisions, trying to have relationships with their peers, but it was observed that sometimes, they still present child’s character. To illustrate this, they hide under their old excuse when they commit fault. Even when they are guilty, children never admit it and prefer hide their act under a simple incident (Grimberg, 2012). In other terms, children and adolescents try to have a certain character but they still learn about the things of the life.

This period is then important for the youth’s development. It conditions his future life. So, those people need help to pass this moment. Our analysis shows that often, teenagers are rejected by their peers, so this can be a first pressure for them. They must henceforth show to their peers what they are.

Sometimes, they may be under the pressure of their parents. This situation may encourage them to spend the great majority of his time with his friends. But it is important to note that those last are not necessarily good frequentations. In fact, they try to build up to themselves a character but really, they just copy the model of somebody else in most of the cases, because they search to be shape to their peer.

Childhood and adolescence consequently, can be considered as the convenient moment to help youth to resist and to have welfare although they are confronted to many pressures and influences. Educators can take advantage of this moment to orient youth in the sense of beautiful things. They can be oriented to activities permitting their total development such as art and music, etc. If children and adolescent receive appropriate education during this period, they still have the chance to have a beautiful future. Music education was considered as one way to help youth in their development.

1. How can music be used in preventing delinquency?

National Crime Prevention Council established a strategy to prevent crime through music. This strategy concerns particularly discriminated youth in street. The aim of the strategy is to take them away from a life of a crime by giving them positive roles through music.

It was admitted that music can encourage positive interactions between youths and the society. Children and adult can participate to the development of the community pride. Music is also a way to express the respect for a diversity of cultural traditions. In fact, music education includes listening during which, students listen to the music of other countries. It was observed in another hand that teaching music and performing arts can improve talent and self-esteem among the participating youth.

To illustrate this, we can observe the strategy established in Clarksdale in Mississipi. The program was undertaken in 1992. It gave instruments and instructions for over 120 areas youth from six area school. 95% of discriminated youth in age from 9 to 19 were targeted. Daytime, after-school and summer activities were proposed to pupils who become apprentices.

They were taught by local musicians who shared their passion and their respect for life through their music. Parallel to this, pupils also receive lessons about personal conduct, money management and effective communication skills.

Results of the program were satisfactory, so it was widen and now, similar program already counts 25 students. For this program, the Delta Blues Museum Program cooperated with Delta Blues Education. After this training, some youth became professional musicians and are performing in different countries: Mississipi, Tenessee, Alabama and Illinois. Those youths regularly carry out in local concerts, have been on televisions, played competitively with student musicians and made CD. Money got by such activities was put in a fund that will be given to apprentices. Sometimes, apprentices can give financial contributions to their families (17).

It was shown by many studies that music interacts with personality of individual. It was admitted that exposure to powerful forms of music might condition personality and attitudes (Perkins, 2008). But this fact is particularly truth for children. In fact, researches show that the development of personality of the child is particularly influenced by music. This fact explains the popularity of personalized kid’s music. As they are learning by music, they develop also their individuality (22).

Some researchers found that it is beneficial to baby to have music lessons very early, before they can walk and talk. In fact, they observed that one year old babies who have participated in interactive music are more spread than others who do not. The former smile more and communicate with other persons. Their brain showed earlier and sophisticated responses to music. But this particularity of participants allows them to grow up normally. Their experience focused on infants that were divided into two groups. The first group collect parents and babies who were working together in learning to play percussion instruments, and in taking turns. This first group also sings specific songs. The second music class collects infants and parents who played at various toy stations. They recorded popular “Baby Einstein” series in the background (Gerry et al., 2012; Trainor, 2012).

Researchers noted that the level communication of all babies were similar before the training. Likewise, they showed the same social development and none of them ha participated to any baby music classes. After the training, it was observed that babies who participated to interactive music classes with their parents presented earlier sensitivity to pitch structure in music. They already showed a preference for piano piece. Those infants presented larger and/or earlier brain responses to musical tones. Infants that did not participate to this interactive music class for baby did not show the same preference. Likewise, their brains showed different response to music (Gerry et al., 2012; Trainor, 2012).

Even this is a very early age; we can already assess the impact of music on human development. Babies who followed interactive classes have better early communication skills. Although they can walk neither talk, they can express themselves by gestures (Gerry et al., 2012; Trainor, 2012).

This result clearly shows that music act on very early age of children. This is important because all researchers before, focused on older children but not on baby. This research show that music acts from the very first moment of human’s life and contributes to his development and personality and communication, which is the pillar of citizenship in the future.

In other hand, music helps individual to learn to learn (Nor and Ilias, 2012). It was shown that music is implied in cognitive behaviour of the children. Listening to interesting songs is reported to develop cognitive behaviours in children and gives a feeling of calm. Music in fact refreshes brain and stimulates its cognitive functions. But it was reported that cognitive abilities are correlated to personality development. It was observed that it was easier to teach them with music. Music was also shown to be involved in creativity, and contributes to psychological development (22).

Music can also be considered as a way to prevent delinquency in society in so far as it is a way to understand the others. We have said that music is a self-expression. Thus, pupils can learn about people of another culture quite there, but they can also learn about themselves. In addition, when pupils study music of other cultures, they can widen their sound base. Consequently, they will be more open and tolerant to new musical sounds. This step enables them to a have a wide range of compositional and improvisational devices (Volk, 2004).

We can say then that music can prevent delinquency in children by functioning and improving their development and communication, music appreciation skills and their social development.

1. Music education and nonviolence program establishing

We reported that music can be used to model from his very young age, a good citizenship. This implies a non violence and a sense of responsibility. But how music can function? Can it change a person to another one? And by what steps?

Recent studies revealed that music is not only an entertainment. This acts on human’s brain. Then we must ask ourselves, if the impact of music on brain can influence the consciousness of the concerned persons and leads him to avoid inappropriate behaviours such as rebellion, drug abuse or other law transgressions?

With the technique of functional magnetic resonance imaging or fMRI, researchers from Finland discovered the brain responses when we are listening to music and assessed the effects of music on human’s brain. So, the results of the experience show that listening to music involves the auditory areas of the brain and brain networks. Musical pulse can act on motor areas of the brain, suggesting that music can influence the movement of persons. In another hand, they observed that emotions can be controlled by music. During listening, they remarked that music also acts on limbic areas of the brain. But this area is implied in human’s emotions. The signal such as the rhythm and the tonality of music are the signal that can excite this area. And finally, during the same process, researchers found that the timbre of the music can influence the default mode network. Well, this area is implied in mind-wandering and creativity (Alluri et al., 2011).

This research reveals the complexity of the effects on our mind. If music impacts on the emotion, it can probably give us a general view about the functioning and the role of music in reducing violence at youth. It helps them to control their emotions and their behaviour. So listening session can be launched in order to prevent delinquency.

Considering that young delinquent are often from unprivileged families, music education program can be focused on valorisation of these skills and the assets of those youth. Educators can realise for example a music appreciation courses at colleges or universities. Music appreciation courses provide to students an introduction to musical terminology and fundamentals. After these courses, they can improve their skills. But educators must attract the interest of the student. They can proceed for example to the exposure of classroom activities that are relevant and appealing. Then, they can lead the interactions of students during the courses, or reinforce student’s interaction with music by giving them a positive and meaningful listening experience. Educators can use lectures, discussions, videos, slides, CD, CD-ROM as a support of courses (Ward-Steinman, 2011).

As children particularly those who are vulnerable to delinquency are reported to present mental illnesses. Consequently, to prevent delinquency, educators must proceed by searching for a strategy that can act on brain’s function. It was reported that they do not have in general positive interaction with other peoples. Sometimes, they can have poor image of themselves. In order to prevent this, educators and their relations must help them to realize that they have values and they have something to give to others (23). For example, they can use their musical skills to helps someone else, to give pleasure to listeners.

Music appreciation courses can help youth to their achievement. In fact, musical understanding can increase the enjoyment of the music. In parallel, this has effects on affective and psychomotor responses (Ward- Steinman, 2011). Those domains can affect the personality and the behaviour of the concerned persons.

We have announced that it is difficult to inculcate in student’s minds certain subject such as mathematics. Researchers have established that music rhythm can help children to solve mathematic fractions. This program results from the cooperation of academic Music and the San Francisco State University. During the training, children learnt the value of musical notes, like half notes, eighth notes and reported it on their equivalent fraction size. Then, children clap and drum rhythms while learning the time value of musical notes. Finally, pupils add and subtract fractions on their work sheets. This new method of learning mathematics was a real success to children. They are very enthusiast and excited to do new exercises (2). Children are thus more interesting to basic subject. This impacts positively to their character because, they have the ability to solve something and they can be interested in something else. This can reduce their aggressiveness and procure a well-being.

Sociability leads our reflections to the sense of citizenship and prevention of violence behaviours. How educators can proceed to change students to citizens? To respond to these questions, teacher must consider their focus and their educational experience. They must consider also the needs and desires of students (Allsup, 2010).

It was shown that music has positive effects on student’s behaviour. Not only, music helps students to pursue their studies, but it can be also considered as a way to improve their inefficiency during study. Music can help students to take up bad behaviour (8).

Study found that music education develops human personality particularly, human socialization. When studying music, people can improve their self-discipline and diligence behaviours, they must be respected to have better relationships with other persons. To illustrate this, there are less students following music education (8,08%), who exposed inappropriate behaviour than those who did not. In addition, students who had integrated band or an orchestra usually do not abuse substances such as alcohol, tobacco or illicit drugs (14).

It was shown that music education is necessary to model civility and respect (Elliott, 2008). Music was reported to prevent juvenile delinquency, but its functions were not clearly explained. Delinquency prevention can result from moral force exerted by the performance. In another hand, music can avoid delinquency because it is a recreational activity that prevents behaviours that can turn antisocial (Kumar, 2004).

Researcher from the Hong Kong Institute of Education reported that music can improve the creativity of young children. Music educators from kindergarten searched for a method that can stimulate children in music learning as well as social interactions, problem solving. This step needs flexibility, willingness in order to encourage enjoyment in children. This can not possible unless music educators and children have full access to musical instruments and integrate music into the daily curriculum. It was noted that children can not enjoy music unless they have experienced it (Wai, 2004).

It is important then to give them free play experiences, and to do demonstrations. Some teachers reported that musical teacher can improve pupil’s creativity by doing compositions and improvisations with sound sources. Necessity of a sound source was reported by those teachers. To do this, teacher can use materials from environment to make music and songs (Wai, 2004).

In addition, movement to music can stimulate musical reactivity. Teachers can improve the expression of the children through dance and music. Creativity comes with imagination, so illustrations are needed. It was established that children think about objects around them and can imagine something that can be transformed through language or dance. During courses, children expressed and created freely. They interact with their peers and teachers through problem solving. This step can not be reached unless the teacher is not too concerned about other thinks and actions. In addition, teachers can proceed by listening to other countries’s music in order to open the view of the children to other’s culture, and to the expression of other societies (Wai, 2004).

Music can help children to interact positively with other person and help them in problem-solving. In fact, during courses, children discuss with their friends and interact with their teachers. So, the attitude of the teacher can influence the attitude of the pupils. The former can add stress and anxiety to children or not. When problem is present, all the class can participate to it. To reach this aim, teacher can distribute children to game groups or to search for a friend to sing together (Wai, 2004).

Music education was reported to be good for preventing inappropriate behaviour. That is why some people involved music education in a program of non violence. This is the case of El Sistema, a sector music education program in Venezuela. This program is particularly used in order to help young poor people who live in impoverished circumstances to avoid taking drugs (8). This program was initiated by José Antonio Abreu used music to fight against gangs. The El Sistema designer is highly convinced that music practice from children constitutes the best technique to avoid gang’s violence in poorest districts, and the “barrios”, which was completely set apart (24).

When El Sistema was created in 1975, the first orchestra collected twelve children from barrios. This orchestra played particularly classical music. The training is free, and the method is educational. El  Sistema aims primarily to give opportunity to poor children to play music together. Technical perfection is not the first aim of this program. It consists in integrating poor children to a group in order to give them a new future (24).

“Paper orchestra” constitutes the initiation to children of 2 years old. They learn with paper instruments but they really learn the functioning of an orchestra, and an instrument. All members do daily repetition and the orchestra is located in theatre Teresa Carreño in Caracas, a district which is considered as one of the most dangerous all over the world. Musicians live near the theatre (24).

Knowing the relevance of such program, the Venezuelan government decided to finance it. The program was widening to other States such as the United States of America and United Kingdom (8). Nowadays, there is 125 young orchestra, 57 children’s orchestra and 30 professional orchestras (24).

In Britannia, Australia and USA, to avoid vandalism, classical music is played through a tannoy in order to drive teenagers off railed station (Yehuda, 2011). It is shown then that music can touch and help every social layers.

• Music and criminal rehabilitation

We have seen that music can act on delinquency prevention on children of impoverished districts. The next question concerns the impact of music on adult persons, and particularly those who were recognized as criminals by society. Can music act on them, in order to rehabilitate them? By what step, or functioning music can act on rehabilitation of criminals?

1. Criminal particularities

Many theories were expressed to explain criminal behaviours. The most important theory concerns the social deprivation. This theory stipulates that crimes result from bad housing conditions, inappropriate education systems, lack of jobs or recreational facilities (Buikshuisen et al., 1984).

Prison is a penitentiary. So, prisoners are penitents. They must do it to server their offences. But this image is more and more modified. Nowadays, prison is considered as a place of punishment. Consequently, instead of being someone better, prisoners become worse. Penitentiary system is perpetuating criminal tendencies (Glanville, 2011). Many disputes were reported in prisons. Sometimes, prisoners witness pack of other prisoners. Some of them are victims of sexual abuses.

In addition jail destroys family relationships. Not only are the criminals jailed, but their family too live as if they were jailed. It is frequent to see that families and relations of jailed persons have the impression to undergo the same experience. They have fear of the judgment of other persons, and so, many of them abandon their close relation there.

This situation is still another pressure for the prisoner, because his future, his life when he will be free. Who can receive him? What will he do? How will be the life, the new life? Those uncertainties worry jailed persons. Criminals are sometimes highly stressed persons. Those stresses can be induced by weakened psychological and social adjustment. Often, those individuals failed in their job or in their studies. Research shows that increase of crimes is associated to social stressors such as infant mortality, divorce, bankruptcy, and high school dropout rate.

Stress is reported to be induced by level of neurotransmitters alteration. Those neurotransmitters include serotonin, hormones such as cortisol. When serotonin rate decreases, individual becomes more impulsive, depressed and aggressive. This conducts him to a poor mental health, and to try to calm himself by drug abuse. Criminals always like to violate conventional rules and to present a lack of cognitive coping skills as well as poor relationships with their friends or colleagues at work. Often, they show a psychopathic deviation (Alexander et al., 2011).

1. Rehabilitation program criteria

After considering the causes of criminal behaviour, we can say that the establishment of rehabilitation program is multidimensional too. It must include psychological, social, ecological, and economic factors (Alexander et al., 2003). It was observed in fact, that instead of changing criminals and delinquents to a better persons, jails become a place for the development of recidivism. Instead of changing, prisoners are appalled of the judicial system. Moreover, they have the prisoner is directly in contact of other prisoners. They must adapt themselves to the conditions of the place. When ancient prisoners come back to the society, there are poor measures undertaken to help them, so sometimes, they are conducted to commit the same crimes and to return in the jail (Sieberg, 2005).

Rehabilitation programs aims to reduce crime and recidivism. This step must consider that prisoners are not another persons but come from our own societies. So, after their imprisonment, they will come back to us. After serving, we must take care of their welfare and their rehabilitation. Ancient prisoners sometimes have difficulties in adapting their life after being imprisoned. Many of them can not adapt themselves to the life conditions outside of the jail. This can result from the fact that they lived in a little space that served as work space, entertainment space. When he is out of the jail, he may not know how to live with other persons who were not jailed. But above all, the fear is still present. How to face the judgment of others because prisoners are considered as dregs of the society. Our own judgment can affect deeply the life perception out of the jail and the thoughts of ancient prisoners. Considering this point of view, the social climate of prison is one of factors conditioning rehabilitation success.

There is still another conditions needed to rehabilitate those criminals. Criminals need first a certain accommodation in order to give them appropriate rehabilitation. Second, they need activity: employment or study. In fact, it was observed that after imprisonment, ancient prisoners always do not have any activity. But idleness does not rehabilitate anyone. Third, ancient prisoners need families and friends. Communication is important to encourage those persons to become someone better. But it was observed somehow, that imprisonment is a very sad and terrifying experience. Often, familial neither nor couple relationships does not survive to it. So, ancient prisoners need to be reassured that they can make it (Glanville, 2011).

The duration of rehabilitation in some countries depends on the sentence of jailed persons. This is represented in the table 2. This table shows us that rehabilitation period varies also according to the age of the individuals.

For people aged of 17 or under, have rehabilitation period duration from 6 months to 7 years. For this group, the lowest duration of rehabilitation period is located when individual have absolute discharge. The highest is recorded in Borstal sentence, and for imprisonment more than six months to 2,5 years.

On the other hand, the duration of rehabilitation period for people aged of 18 or over when convicted varies from six months to 10 years. In fact, the lowest rehabilitation period is recorded when individual obtained an absolute discharge. The highest rehabilitation period is recorded when individual got a sentence of more than six months to 2,5 years.

Table 2: Rehabilitation periods according to sentences (source: Nacro, 2007)

There are many approaches that were proposed to criminals. For example, the transcendental meditation program was proposed to prisoners. Rehabilitation programs aim to improve creativity of ancient prisoners, to take care of their emotional well-being and to improve their professional efficacy. They also aim to reduce stress. In fact, imprisonment can lead to depression, anxiety and a poor self esteem. In order to reduce anxiety, depression and stress in this type of individual, some researchers propose to some prisoners to take a rest. So, many researchers’ perfects techniques such as biofeedback, hypnosis, breathe control, which needs a certain mental or physiological effort (Alexander et al., 2003). In addition, some programs including cognitive-behavioural courses are also undertaken in order to improve prisoner’s thoughts, targets, interpersonal conducts and decision making, according to materials developed by L Ron Hubbard (18).  This author and humanitarian stipulate that every individual can improve his condition if he has the opportunity to do this. The principle of Hubbard is based on fundamental nature: “man is basically good and it is pain, suffering, and loss that lead him astray”. In this concept, Hubbard tried to rehabilitate persons who were drug addict without using alternative drugs (25). So, criminals can be rehabilitated too, if we give them an opportunity to do this and to begin a new life.

In other hand, rehabilitation programs are conceived to give to those individuals more resilience. Resilience can be defined as “a resistance to the accumulation of stress- induced abnormalities and to inappropriate behaviours triggered by stressful circumstances”. It was reported that resilience can help criminals to have a well-being or an effective functioning in their activities and their roles in society.

Rehabilitation program must help individuals to have a good functioning of their bodies, and to increase their alertness and awareness of the mind. We have shown that criminals often have weakened thought. Depressed, they enter in a second state. So, their rehabilitation must help them to reinforce their thoughts and their actions, in order to avoid ancient prisoner sinking to repeated offenses or initial criminal acts (Alexander et al., 2003).

1. Music and criminal rehabilitation

Music was shown to be important in forming a character, and to have an identity, that is always lost in prisoners. Works of Folkestad (2006) showed that music education can be used in order to discover and to celebrate the global and the local identities.

Ancient prisoner were reported to be very bewildered after imprisonment. They often do not get jobs and are depressed. Their rehabilitation can consider their skills. After this step, educators can proceed in performing the skills of the person. It was shown in recent study that when someone listens to his favourite music, he can improve his performance (1). Music sessions can thus help prisoners to boost their performance when working. It can also help them in improving their creativity and their skills.

Considering the depression and the feelings of criminals, it was reported that music can be used as a tool to have a psychological dialogue with persons who passed by many trials. Music in fact facilitates communication with such persons. This method is called music therapy. Scientist such as Sandra Curtis from the Department of Creative Arts Therapies uses music to enter in a deep psychological dialogue with persons who have problems of communication or with people who have passed by other trials like ancient prisoners (Curtis, 2011).

The first benefit of music in rehabilitation of criminals is its effects on stress and negative thoughts. Music is often reported to change psychological state and to contribute in relaxing anxious and stressed persons (Sloboda, 1996).

Music can also be used to reduce pain and anxiety. Our study shows that imprisonment is source of stress and fears. But to avoid pain, it is better to have a distraction. Researchers showed that when high-anxiety persons listen to music, their anxiety is reduced. Those researchers experienced hundred forty three subjects. Those subjects listened to music and undergo experimental pain shocks induced by fingertip electrodes. They observed that central arousal from the pain stimuli decreased when music task demand increased. This involves that music reduces pain by activating sensory pathways. These last compete with pain pathways and stimulate emotional responses and finally, they engage cognitive attention. It can be concluded then that music gives intellectual and emotional engagement to reduce pain (Bradshaw et al., 2011).

It was established that music education can increase self esteem and thinking skills (14). It was reported in fact, that imprisonment can influence psychological and mental state of prisoners. For example, studies show that, those individuals can feel disappointment and depression, loneliness, because of the separation from family and friends, and fear. This last psychological state is caused by uncertainty. It is probable that ancient prisoner doubts of his future by means of so long times passed behind bars. In addition, danger is always present although individual is imprisoned. Different physical abuses were reported: hurt, sexual aggression, murder. Prisoners are often paranoiac and tormented persons. Those individuals can feel anger toward other persons, or the whole world, because of their fate. Finally, ancient prisoners always show bad feelings about themselves or a poor self-image. Such opinion of themselves leads those individuals to think that they are losers (Slobodzien, 2004). So, rehabilitation program must involve a way to improve the self esteem.

Rehabilitation involves the identity of criminals. Some studies show that music education can facilitate the discovery a celebration of the global and local identity (Folkestad, 2006).

Music is a way to express oneself and to expose to another persons one’s ideas and ideals. It was reported to form character of individuals. Study led on music students showed that music help them to understand and to appreciate their environment. Music education can contribute to self accomplishment because it includes every fact of the personality of the individual: study, communication and cognitive skills (15).

Accomplishment includes brain development. Analysis found that musicians have more brain functions than non musicians. This results from attention that musicians pay when they play music. While they playing music, they must adjust their decisions on temp, tone, style and rhythm, phrasing in order to have a well organized set. Such behaviour improves musician’s attention, intelligence and ability to know and to express himself (Ratey, 2001). Spatial reasoning can be improved by this method according to Rauscher et al. (1994).

Music acts on brain. In fact, it influences the function of neurones. When an individual listens to music, some neuronal structures such as cortex, amygdale, hippocampus and hypothalamus are developed and activated. Like this, plasticity and neurogenesis are also developed (Fukui and Toyoshima, 2008).

Serotonin, a neurotransmitter responding to music is released in high concentration in the brain. This fact produces good mood for listener if he loves the music. In opposite, when music is less appreciated, level of serotonin decrease in the brain. (Evers and Suhr, 2000). This shows the importance of music in modifying emotions of people. This property of the music can be applied to criminals’ persons.

Self achievement includes psychological, spiritual and physical improvement. This is a way to improve self disciplines and diligence. Music gives pleasures to musicians but also, to people who are listening (15). From now on, music education can be considered as a way to rehabilitate criminals. It can also be used as an important tool in psychological treatment.

Sometimes, music is used to release negative emotions. This fact is particularly true for girls. It was observed that girls having poor family relationships listened to music in order to avoid relieve of their sadness, frustration, etc. The opposite fact was observed on boys. In fact, listening to music translates harmonious relationships with parents on boys (Lacourse et al., 2001). This involves that impacts of music depends on the genre.

Moreover, negative or positive influence of the music on emotional states of an individual is closely related to the mode. Music in major modes for examples is associated to happy emotional responses, whereas music in minor modes was associated to sadness. The same result was observed for music tempo and musical texture. However, this last element has lower effects than do the others. Happiness of individuals increases when tempo of music also increases (Webster and Weir, 2005).

This effect of music on emotions results from correlations between cognitive and emotive mental processes (Krumhansl, 2002). However, this result depends to musical experience too. It was observed that individuals who had musical experience are more exposed to harmonized minor music compared to individuals with less musical experience. Those who are already familiar to music can develop happier ratings. Thus, an emotion is not only resulting from musical elements but also from familiarity of individuals to music (Websteir and Weir, 2005). This justifies the necessity and the importance of music education on rehabilitation of criminals, and the necessity to get acquainted with music from the very early age.

Music can be useful to prisoners because it gives satisfaction and contributes to the welfare and achievement. In fact, it fills unconscious needs (Perkins,2008). Music can also regulate emotions and consolidate identity (Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham, 2007). That is the reason why, many researchers since 1950, have focused their works on music therapy. It was discovered that music or music-based experience like singing, playing musical instruments, moving or listening to music, creating or discussing about songs and music have positive effects on individual’s skills, thoughts, feeling and behaviours (Peters, 2000).

Well-being is correlated to the activation of endorphin. In addition to welfare, endorphin procures also relaxation. The rate of endorphin is particularly high when people listen to their favourite song (Balter, 2004). Cortisol that characterizes the stressed state is decreased when stressed individual is exposed to pleasant music (Khalfa et al., 2003).

Somehow, there is another factor that must be considered. It is about the kind of music listened. In fact, cortisol rate decreased with major music such as Allegro con Spirito from Mozart, rather than minor music like Für Elise (Beethoven), which induces sadness. Likewise, techno-music provokes the production of more cortisol, whereas classical music reduces it (Gerra et al., 1998).

It was also shown that to provoke relaxation, it is important that tempo is at or below resting heart (< 80 beats per minute). The music must have predictable dynamics, melodic movement, harmony, regular rhythm without sudden changes. Tonal qualities must include strings, flute, piano or synthesized tones. Those conditions permit rhythms to body to slow down or entrain while listening to the music (Merker et al.,  2008).

Slow, steady and repetitive rhythm can induce hypnosis conducting to relaxation and anxiety reduction. This last state involves increasing of cognitive quieting and altered states of consciousness. Music also helps to present more relaxed physiological responses. Anxiety reduction implies occupation of channels in the brain with meaningful, distractive auditory stimuli instead of stressful environmental stimuli (Yehuda, 2011).

In a rehabilitation program for prisoners, music listening, guided imagery and progressive muscle relaxation to music may be adopted. This technique was realized to psychiatric prisoner patients. After this training, it was observed that imprisoned individuals showed significant improvement of the relaxation, mood and self-image (Lesiuk, 2008).

Nevertheless, there is still ambiguity concerning the correlation between music education and good citizenship. Researchers remarked that people who did not learn music, often did not learn else either. Consequently, results cannot be considered as the effects of only non involvement of individuals in music education.

Moreover, there is still doubt about the real case of delinquency decrease. We remark that comfortably off persons always interested by music and learn it from either very young age. But rich persons are not in general, sensitive to delinquency. It was observed that young delinquent are particularly localized in underprivileged families. Here, we must ask ourselves, if music is truly the factor who improves citizenship on young people, or, if it is just a privileged domain for rich persons. Considering this context, the real cause of non-violence and citizenship is not the music education, but the social environment in which, young people grow (Kumar, 2004).

1. Some rehabilitation program based on music education

In the United Kingdom, The Unit for Arts and Offenders (UAOP) listed 76 individuals’ artist organizations. Those artists have done 650 arts projects in UK prisons during 2002. After those steps, it was observed that jailed individuals showed a progress in their creativity, cultural diversity, self-expressions, and improvement of skills in art, self esteem and self confidence (Skyllstad, 2005).

Some organizations such as Irene Taylor Trust consider that music can be used in criminal rehabilitation program. In this concept, they established and encouraged such projects.  During the musical project Julius Caesar, 94% of participants stopped their offences during the time they participate to the projects. Observer reported 58% decrease in offence rates in the sixth months following their project, rather than offences rate recorded six months before the beginning of the project (Skyllstad, 2005).

The same steps were undertaken at the Breitvedt Woman’s prison in Oslo with the program Music in Prison and Freedom. This program consists in mobilizing music resources in prisoner rehabilitation on a national scale. This project was realized in order to offer to prisoners the opportunity to have a normal everyday life after imprisonment. When the program was realized, consciousness and change emotions of the jailed persons.

During this time, prisoners strengthened their social skills of cooperation and responsibility. They also develop their identity and self confidence. Like the former prisoner, they have developed positive and realistic image of themselves (Skyllstad, 2005).

When results were reported, the Department of Justice decided to finance nine other prisons. They aimed to involve 43 prisons out (Skyllstad, 2005).

In South Africa, Transformation Programme was undertaken by the Centre for Conflict Resolution at the University of Cape Town in 1998. This program concerns particularly imprisoned youth in Pollsmore prison. Henceforth, music can change destructive conflicts between gangs of convicted killers and their members (Skyllstad, 2005).

Conclusion

Development of a country depends on the citizenship of their population. This citizenship involves responsibility, activity and dynamism in democracy. Citizens must be able to make decision in order to develop the Nation. That is the reason why, citizenship education takes a very important place for one Nation.

It was observed somehow that the establishment of this citizenship can not be if education is not adequate. For long time, schools, institutions and universities were considered as the main pillars for establishing citizenship. At school, educators try to inculcate citizenship to students. But it was observed that the concept of citizenship education is not inculcated or does not give the expected results. This shows the complexity of establishing an adequate education in order to have productive citizenship even in persons who have not committed offences.

Our study shows that educational system is very complex. It can not be undertaken without thinking about later impacts. In order to have good citizenship, educators must consider that young people are in a very difficult situation and passes a perturbation period during which, he witness’s different changes. They try to adapt themselves to a new lifestyle but often they do not reach their aim. Sometimes, they are frustrated persons so they show low interests for studies.

We have analyzed that teenagers need to be helped in order to improve their life. As it was shown that delinquency concerns particularly impoverished social layers, a system of citizenship education must touch a domain that youth likes: the music.

Our study shows that music can prevent delinquency of young people. From the very early age of human race, music is shown to be an useful tool to develop the personality. When children play music or listen to it, or sing; they develop their social skills and they develop their personality because they express themselves. This is important in so far as the self esteem counts in the personality and the communication. This last concept in fact helps those young people to have good relationships with their relations.

When they play music, they are more spread because they do something that they like. In addition, it was observed that music education can help pupils to be interested in and to improve their capacity in basic subject such as mathematics.

Considering those impacts of music on brain, emotions and personality, we can say that delinquency can be avoided by youth when they feel that they can do something good. They can not be delinquent when they have a positive image of themselves and they can not be stressed when they have guarantee that they can do something better in the future not only for themselves, but also for the others.

Venezuela has thus made a step in order to improve the orchestra of impoverished people of barrios, El Sistema. This very special orchestra has as objectives to fight against the violence perpetrated by gangs in dangerous districts. El Sistema widen in different districts nowadays.

However, this is just a first step because there are many poor countries that have not this kind of system that permits to poor children and poor teenagers to develop. In addition, we have mentioned in our study that the environment is very important in music perception of the children. When we talk about music education for children, it may be also important to make sensitive their relations and particularly their parents.

Children can not develop unless he has the support of their parents. Children always need their parents. Certainly, they have support of their educators and their friends but all those affections can never replace the affection that they have toward their parents.

It was also shown that music education can be involved in criminal rehabilitation. Our analysis shows that criminal persons have particular needs. They need supports from us to launch a new life.

In this concept, the property of music to improve the self esteem and to reduce stress is particularly important. The impacts of music in calming high-anxiety persons can also be exploited. Jailed persons as well as their friends and families must adapt themselves to a new kind of life out of the prison. But uncertainty still reigns sometimes.

Then, educators can exploit the ability of music to enhance performance of persons. Music is also important to improve communication skills in persons who have passed by such experience.

Ancient a jailed person such as Cash used music in order to express how much the life under bars is very difficult and how much, imprisonment can negatively affect the personality, the life of jailed persons. In brief, prisons instead of being a place for penitent become a place for recidivism. Governments tried then to avoid this situation by creating and financing some rehabilitation programs in order to permit ancient jailed persons to reintegrate society after serving.

It is important somehow to note that music education in prison is just a step to help them to have a well-being. But the success of that rehabilitation is closely related to our temperaments and attitude toward those persons. Their integration depends on our judgments.

In this concept, we can say that music is not only a simple distraction. This is an important tool for preventing violence and for rehabilitating offenders. Music is also our language and a message, our expression and our culture. It guarantees that message passes from one generation to another one. Music is our culture, our present and our future.

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